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胡壮麟的语言学课件(英文版)分享

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Amy1006 发表于 10-10-4 16:29:52 | 显示全部楼层 |阅读模式
2.  What is this course about?
Chapter 1   Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 2   Speech Sounds
Chapter 3   Lexicon
Chapter 4   Syntax
Chapter 5   Meaning
Chapter 6   Language and cognition
Chapter 7   Language, Culture, and Society
Chapter 8  Language in use
Chapter 9  language and literature
Chapter 10  language and computer
Chapter 11  linguistics and foreign language  teaching
Chapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics
                   1. language
    Definition
    Features
    Functions
1) Definition:
  Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
   (语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。)

  Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." (语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。)
  Chomsky, 1957: From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.(从现在起,我将语言看作是一系列有限的或无限的句子,每个句子的长度有限,并由有限的成分组合而成。)
    语言是人类特有的一种符号系统,当它作用于人与人的关系的时候,它是表达相互反映的中介;当它作用于人和客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候, 它是文化信息的载体和容器。
A Generally Accepted Definition
    Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Understanding the Definition
     Why a system?
     Why arbitrary?
     Why vocal?
     Why symbols?
     Why human?
     Why communication?

    system: elements in language
    are arranged according to certain rules.
    arbitrary: there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the things we refer to.
    vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages
symbol: words are associated with
             objects, actions,  ideas by
             convention
human:  language is human specific,   
      different from the communication
      system of  animals
The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
    Productivity/creativity: Human beings can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences.
    Duality:
   lower level ---- sounds (meaningless)
   higher level---- meaning
       a small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinitely number of sentences.
Cultural transmission: Language is passed on from  one generation to the next by teaching and learning,  rather than by instinct.
3) Origin of Language
    The Divine- Origin Theory
    The Bow-wow theory
    The Pooh-pooh theory
    The “Yo-he-ho” theory
    The natural response theory
4) Functions of Language
    What do you think are the functions of language?
    Jakobson’s Model (1960):  based on
          six elements of communication
    Referential(所指的)-- Context (语境)
    Emotive (情感的)-- Addresser (说话者)
    Poetic (诗学的)--- Message (信息)
    Conative (意动的)-- Addressee(受话者)
    Phatic(交感的)--Contact(接触)
    Metalingual(元语言的)--Code(语码)
    Halliday’s Model:
   Ideational(概念功能): convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer
   Interpersonal(人际功能): express social and personal relations
   textual(语篇功能): make any sketch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text
    (1925-), founder of systemic functional linguistics,1947-1949 studied at Beijing University, 1949-1950 studied at Ling Nan University, 1955 got doctor’s degree at Cambridge University with The Language of the Chinese “Secret History of the Mongols”
  General Functions of Language
    Informative (信息功能):   
   to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out.
   By use of declarative sentences
    e.g. Road closed!
    Interpersonal(人际功能):
   to establish and maintain their status in a society.
    Performative(行事功能):
   the use of language to “do things”, to perform actions.
   Through quite formal and even ritualized language.
e.g. I declare the meeting open!
    Emotive(感情功能):
  the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.
  Through Jokes, Advertising, Propaganda, etc.
    Directive function(指令功能):
   get the hearer to do sth
e.g. close the book and listen to me carefully!
     Phatic(寒暄功能):
   the use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.
  Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc.
   e.g. how do you do!
    Interrogative function:
   ask for information from others
e.g. what is your idea?
    Expressive function:
    reveal speaker’s attitudes and feelings
  e.g.  My God!
    Recreational(娱乐功能):
   the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.
   baby’s babbling, poetry, etc.
     Metalingual(元语言功能): the use of language to talk about language itself.
2. Linguistics
1)    Definition
•    Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language
     language: not any particular language, but the language of all human society, language in general
   scientific: based on systematic investigation of linguistic data
Four principles of linguistic studies
•    Exhaustiveness/adequacy
•    Consistency
•    Economy
•    Objectivity
2) Significance of Linguistics?
思考:
•    一个人如果没有有关某一语言的语言学知识,她/他能够流利地讲这一语言吗?
    答:可以。
•    刘翔是因为具有了跨栏和跑步的运动力学知识,所以才成为奥运冠军的吗?
    答:应该不是。

•    语言是人的一部分。研究语言,人门不得不把焦点瞄准自己,到自己的大脑中去寻找答案。研究与人形影不离的语言,能帮助人类进一步认识自己。(熊学亮 2003:1)

    语言既是社会现象,是人们相互联系的纽带,但它本身的发生、传递和接受的机制又属于自然现象。语言的这种特殊的性质决定了语言学在科学体系中的特殊地位,即它既是社会科学,又与自然科学有密切的联系,可以说,语言学是介于社会科学和自然科学之间的一门特殊的学科。正由于此,语言学善于从自然科学的发展中吸取相关的理论和方法,推动语言学的发展,而其他人文社会科学又从语言学中吸取相关的理论和方法。语言学是联系社会科学和自然科学的纽带和桥梁。语言学的理论和方法在人文社会科学中处于领先的地位。

•    每一语言都包含着一种独特的世界观,个人更多地通过语言形成世界观(洪堡特 )。也就是说,每一具体语言都是源出于人,反过来又作用于人,制约着人的思维和行动(姚小平)。
•    语言               思维                 现实/科学
•    现代科学的世界观是根据西方印欧语言的基本语法特征概括而成的.(沃尔夫)

•    语言学理论对语言学习和语言教学具有方法论上的指导意义。
3)  The Scope of Linguistics
•    思考:
•    语言可以分为哪些层次?
The Core of Linguistics
•     Sound                           phonetics
•     Sounds                          phonology
•     Word                             morphology
•     Words/sentence             syntax
•     Meaning                         semantics
•     Meaning in a context          pragmatics

The scope or major branches of linguistics
    Theoretical linguistics
    Phonetics
    Phonology
    Morphology
    Syntax
    Semantics
    Use of linguistics
    Applied linguistics
    Sociolinguistics
    Psycholinguistics
      ……
Theoretical linguistics
    Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.
    Phonology----sound patterns of languages
    Morphology----the form of words
    Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.
    Semantics----the meaning of language
    Pragmatics----the meaning of language in context
Use of linguistics
    Applied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching
    Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use
    Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process
    Stylistics----linguistic and literature
    Anthropological linguistics: anthropology & language variation and use
    Neurolinguistics: brain and language
    Computational linguistics: the use of computers and computer tech to do linguistic research
4)   Some important distinctions in linguistics
Prescriptive vs. descriptive:
•    descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,.
•    Prescriptive: If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say
Synchronic vs diachronic
    Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)
    Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
Speech vs. writing
•    Speech is regarded as the primary medium of human language for the following reasons:
   A. history
   B. function
   C. acquisition order
    如果说语言符号是人类走出动物界的里程碑,那么文字的产生,则是人类由野蛮社会进入文明社会的一个重要标志。(陈宗明 )
langue vs. parole (F.de Sassure)
•    Langue: the generalized rules of a language
    abstract, stable, social
•    Parole: the application of the rules
    concrete, changeable, individual
   Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions
Ferdinand de Saussure
•    (1857-1913), Swiss, founder of structuralism, modern linguistics, semiology.
•    Course in General Linguistics, 1916
Competence & Performance (Chomsky)
    Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
    Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
     Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
Avram Noam Chomsky
•    (1928-), founder of TG, a revolution to structuralism.
Traditional Grammar & Modern Linguistics
•     prescriptive vs. descriptive
•     written vs. spoken
•     Latin-based framework vs.
        universal framework
Linguistic potential & actual linguistic behavior (Halliday)
    LP(语言潜势): with l, there is s wide range of things a speaker can do in the cultural he is in. the set of possibility for “doing” is LP from a functional l view.
    ALB: what a speaker actually says on a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many  possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have said is ALB.

etic & emic(唯素的和唯位的)
    etic: the linguistc units containing “-etic”,such as phonetic, morphetic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, and are used to describe things.
    emic: the linguistic units containing “-emic”, such as phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe abstract linguistic rules with distinctive features and are first used to describe phonemes.
                           EXERCISES
    Define the following terms:
1. Linguistics        2. Language   
   3. Arbitrariness     4. Productivity   
   5. Displacement    6.Duality         
   7. Design Features
   8. Competence   
   9. Performance     
   10. Langue         
   11. Parole
     Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples  for illustration if necessary:
1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for  human communication. Explain it in detail.
2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.
3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
4. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?
5. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?
6. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?
7. How do you understand competence and performance ?
8. Saussure's distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?
9. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?
In terms of manner of articulation
•    Stops (塞音) : air stream first obstructed and then released, [p] , [t] [d], and [k] [g]
•    Fricatives(擦音): partial obstruction and local friction, [f] [v] [z] [] [] [] [] [h]
•    Affricates(塞擦音): first complete obstruction, then frication with partial obstruction, [] []
•    Liquids(流音): airflow first obstructed then allowed to escape between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, [l] [r]
•    Nasals(鼻音): air allowed to pass the nose, [m] [n] []
•    Glides(滑音): very narrow passage between the lips and causing slight noise from the local obstruction, [w] [j]
    In terms of place of articulation
•    Bilabial(双唇音): lips brought together to cause obstruction, [p] [m] [w]
•    Labiodental(唇齿音): the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, [f] [v]
•    Dental(齿音): between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth, [] []
•    alveolar(齿龈音): the tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge, [t] [d] [z] [n] [l] [r]
•    Palatal(上腭音): obstruction between the back of the tongue and the hard palate, [] [] [] [] [j]
•    Velar(软腭音): back of tongue brought into contact with the soft palate, [k] [g] []
•    glottal(喉音): vocal cords are brought together, [h]
according to the position of tongue (which part of tongue maintained the highest)
    Front vowels:    [i:]   [ i ]   [e]  []  []
    Central vowels: [:]  []   []
    Back vowels:    [u:]      [:]  []  []
    the criteria of openness of mouth
    Close vowels:          [i:]  [ i ]   [u:]  
    Semi-close vowels: [e] [ :]
    Semi-open vowels:  [] [ :]
    Open vowels:          [] [  ] [] []
Diphthongs:
     [ei] [ai] [i]
     [au] [u]
     [i] [e] [u]
 楼主| Amy1006 发表于 10-10-4 16:32:29 | 显示全部楼层

胡壮麟的语言学课件第二章

Chapter 2
  Phonetics and Phonology
  Focuses:
    语音学的定义;三大分支;辅音的发音部位和发音方法;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
    音系、音位、音位变体、自由变体;最小对立体、对立分布、互补分布;超语段音位学:音节;重音、语调、声调等。
PHONETICS
1. Phonetics :the study of the speech sounds that occur in all human lges,how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Three branches:
    Articulatory Phonetics :
   the production of speech sounds
    Acoustic Phonetics : the physical properties of speech sounds
    Auditory or Perceptual Phonetics: the perception of speech sounds
2.  Speech organs (those parts of human  bodies involved
in the production of speech):
the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose, the mouth
Three important areas:
    Pharyngeal cavity ---- the pharynx(咽)
    The oral cavity ---- the   mouth
    Nasal cavity ---- the nose

The diagram of  speech organs
    Lips唇
    Teeth齿
    Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈
    Hard palate
    Soft palate (velum)
    Uvula小舌
    Tip of tongue
    Blade of tongue舌面
    Back of tongue舌背
    Vocal cords
    Pharyngeal cavity咽腔
    Nasal cavity 鼻腔
   3. Phonetic transcription
     IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet):
    A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle:one letter to represent one speech sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any lge in which it appears. The present one mainly derives from one developed in the 1886, revised in 1993, corrected (updated) twice in 1996 and in 2005.
Broad and Narrow Transcription
     Diacritics(发音符号/辨音符): the set of symbols in IPA, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.
    pit [phit]
    Broad transcription(宽式音标):
     The transcription of sounds with letter-symbols only. spit [spit]
    Narrow transcription(严式音标):    The transcription of sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. pit [phit]
4.Classification
  A dichotomy:
    Vowels: produced with no obstruction whatsoever of the vocal tract, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
    Consonants: produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
Classification of consonants
     In terms of manner of articulation(发音器官之间的关系):
    A. stops/plosives: [p][t][d][k][g]
    B. fricatives:[f, v, s, z, θh]
    C. affricates:  [,]
    D. liquids: lateral [l], retroflex [r]
    E. nasals: [m, n, ŋ]
    F. glides/semivowels: [w, j]
In term of place (声道变化)of articulation:
    A. bilabial: [p, b, m, w]
    B. labiodental: [f, v]
    C. dental: [θ, ]
    D. alveolar: [t, d, s, z, n, l, r]
    E. palatal: [  j]
    F. velar: [k, g, ŋ]
    G. glottal: [h]
In terms of the state of the vocal cords:
    A. voiced: consonants produced when the vocal cords are closed, and the air-stream causes them to vibrate again each other.
    B. voiceless: consonants produced when vocal cords are apart, and air passes through easily.
   A. VD:  /b, d, g, v, z, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j,   
   B. VL: /p, t, k ,f, θ, s,  h, w, 
Classification of vowels
A dichotomy:
    Monophthongs: individual vowels
    Diphthongs: vowels which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.
   [ei, ai, au, əu, +, iə, eə, uə]
    Cardinal vowels(基本元音):  a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
Classification of monophthongs
    In terms of the position of the tongue :

In terms of the openness of the mouth:
        A. close:
        B. semi-close:
        C. semi-open:
        D. open:
In terms of the shape of the lips:
    A. unrounded: all the front vowels, central vowels, and [a:].
    B. rounded: all the back vowels except [a:].
In terms of the length:
   A. short: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [].
   B. long: [], [], [], [], []
In terms of the state of the larynx
    A. tense: all the long vowels
    B. lax: all the short vowels
5. coarticulation(协同发音):
  the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors.
  anticipatory coarticulation(先期): the sounds become more like the following sound.  e.g.lamb
    Preservative coaritculation (后滞): the sounds become more like the proceeding sound.  e.g. map
Phonology
1. Phonology: the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.
    the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in lges, and to explain the variations that occur.
    we normally begin by analyzing an individual lge in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together.
    Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.
2. Phonetics & phonology
   Both are concerned with the same aspect of lge----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.
    Phonetics: of general nature;  all the speech sounds used in all human lges; answer questions: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.
    Phonology: discover how speech sounds in a lge form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
3. Phonological theory
    A phone(音素): a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.  
       Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bt ] & [ bt ], [spt] & [spt].
A phoneme(音位):
  a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context.
    Allophones(音位变体):
  the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
  Phonetic similarity:
    The allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic   
  resemblance.
   Eg: [ ph, p] are both voiceless bilabial stops differing only in aspiration.
    Phonemic contrast (音位对立):
  If phonetically similar sounds are 2 distinctive phonemes,  they form a phonemic contrast (ie, they distinguish meaning).
   Eg: /p/ and/b/ can occur in the same environments ([pin] and [bin])
    Complementary distribution:
   If phonetically similar sounds are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution (ie, they occur in different phonetic environments).
Eg: ① The clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [\\] always occurs  between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the two  allophones    are in complementary distribution.
    ② [p] and [ph] never contrast each other, they are 2 allophones of the same   phoneme /p/, they occur in different environments .When one pronounces a  word which begins with /p/, they choose the aspirated allophone [ph], and if  the /p/ occurs after the sound /s/, they will choose the unaspirated allophone [p].
   Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair
    Pill/bill; pill/till
4. Some phonological rules
     Sequential rules
     Assimilation rule
     Deletion rule
Sequential rules
    the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language,
  e.g.  “k  b  i  I”  might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.
    If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.
    If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.
    a)  the first phoneme must be /s/,
    b)  the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,
    c)  the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.
Assimilation rule
    assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
    鼻音化:can, tan
    齿音化:tenth,ninth
    软颚鼻音化:sink, mink, pan cake,    you can go now
Deletion rule
    Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented,
  e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.
    Distinctive features:
  Suprasegmental features
(超切分特征):
  the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):
    stress
    tone
    intonation
   Stress:
    Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.
    Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.
    The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [mn].
    The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.

Stress
     Word stress
     Sentence stress
Word stress
    The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:
    verb:   import;     increase;   rebel;  record …
    noun:  import;     increase;   rebel;    record …
    Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:
    compound:    blackbird;   greenhouse;  hotdog…
    noun phrase: black bird;   green house;  
    hotdog…
    The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:
  modifier: dining-room;  readingroom;  sleepingbag…
  doer: sleeping baby;  swimming fish;  flying plane…
Sentence stress
    the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.
    Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.
   He is driving my car.
   My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.
Tone
    Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
    English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.
   ma 妈  (level)
   ma 麻  (the second rise)
   ma 马  (the third rise)
   ma 骂  (the fourth fall)
Intonation
   English has three types of intonation :
    falling tone (matter of fact statement)
    rising tone (doubts or question)
    the fall-rise tone (implied message)
   For instance,   “That’s not the book he wants.”
Functions of intonations in verbal communication
     grouping of words: indicating the possible groupings of words in phrases, resulting in different meanings of these phrases
   e.g. small boy’s school
  emphasizing words: emphasizing a certain word within a phrase or sentence.
   e.g. John kissed Mary.
   differentiating meanings:
   a falling pitch– the declarative sentence; a rising pitch—questions
   e.g. he is coming to the party
          tonight?
                           exercises
1.Terms:
  1) phone
  2) phoneme
  3) allophone
  4) narrow transcription
  5)  suprasegmental
2. What are the contrastive and complementary distributions in the isolation of phonemes? Give examples.
3. Underline the words that contain a sound as required:
    1) a low vowel: pipe, gather, leave,cook
    2) a bilabial consonant: cool, leap, push
    3) an approximant: lucky, boots, words
    4) a front vowel: god, neat, pit, lush
    5) a velar: god, fast, chat, lake
  4. briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two.
  5. intonation has four grammatical functions. State any two of them, giving examples where necessary.
 楼主| Amy1006 发表于 10-10-4 16:33:49 | 显示全部楼层

胡壮麟的语言学课件第四章

Chapter Four
             Syntax
   
    FOCUSES:
    Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
    Immediate constituent analysis
    Endocentric and exocentric constructions
    Deep structure and surface structure
    Systematic-functional grammar
1. Introduction
    Syntax: the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Approached to syntax:
    the traditional approach
    the structural approach
    The generative approach
    The functional approach
2. Syntactic relations:
    the relation between words in a
    sentence
    positional relations
    relations of substitutability
    relations of co-occurrence
Positional Relation: the sequential arrangement of words in a language
    For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.
    The boy kicked the ball
       NP1                   NP2
    Subject             Object
    If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.
    For example:
    The boy kicked the ball
    *Boy the ball kicked the
    *The ball kicked the boy
    The teacher saw the students
    The students saw the teacher
Relation of Substitutability
    classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.
    The ______ smiles.
             man
             boy
             girl
    groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
Relation of Co-occurrence
    words of different sets or clauses may permit, or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. 不同词类的不同词汇集合允许另一个词类获集合的词出现构成一个句子获句子的某一特定部分。
3. Traditional Approach
    A sentence is a sequence of words, a great deal of the study of words, such as the classification of words, the categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability;  the verb: tense, aspect, voice, etc.
    Category: classes and functions, like n. v. sub. pred. NP,VP, etc.
    Syntactic category: a word, a phrase or a clause that performs a particular grammatical function, such as subject in a sentence.
1) Nouns:
    Number
    Gender
    Case
    NUMBER: a grammatical category for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.
   In English, number in nouns, only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.
   Number in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.
    GENDER: a grammatical category displaying such contrasts as “masculine, feminine, neuter”, “animate, inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of certain word classes.
   When word items refer to the sex of real-world entities, we are talking about natural gender. The opposite is grammatical gender.
  Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases, for instance, in Latin, ignis ‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine.
    English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.
    he: she: it
    prince: princess
    author: authoress
    case: an inflectional category, basically of nouns, marking their role in relation to other parts of the sentence.
   In Latin grammar, six distinctions: “nominative(主格)”, “accusative(宾格)”, “vocative(呼格)”, “dative(与格)”,“genitive(属格)” “ablative(离格)”, etc.
    In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels: (a) inflection, (b) following a preposition, (c) word order, as manifested in
    teacher : teacher’s
    with : to a man
    John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John
2) Verbs
    Tense
    Aspect
    mood
Tense: An inflectional category whose basic role is to indicate the time of an event in relation to the moment of speaking.
    16 tenses
    Tense: a linguistic concept varying from l to l
    Time: a universal concept, every l is capable of expression
Aspect:  a verbal category distinguishing the status of events.  
   English has two aspects which combine fairly free with tense and mood:
    the perfect: I have / had ….
                       I will / would/have….
    the progressive: I am / was doing …
                               I will / would be doing…
    Mood: a grammatical category distinguishing modality(情态).
   modality indicating a kind of speech act or the degree of certainty with which sth is said.
3) Relation between categories: when different categories appear together in the same sentence, some of them must control the others coz of their differences in types and features.
    CONCORD (AGREEMENT) :
   a syntactic relation between words and phrases which are compatible, in a given construction, by virtue of inflections carried by them.
    This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,
    Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.
    or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:
    Each person may have one coin.  
    Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:
    This man runs.          The bird flies.
    These men run.             These birds fly.
4. Structural approach
  linguistic units interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.
1) Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations(组合关系和聚合关系)
    SR: the relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc. (Saussure)
    Word order : SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
    English: SVO type
    PR: a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure.
    VERTICAL relations or CHOICE relations.
2) immediate constituent analysis直接成分分析
    CONSTITUENT: a term in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, a part of a larger linguistic unit.
    Several constituents together form a construction.
   e.g. The girl  ate the apple.
    If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the girl) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S” , here a sentence ), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.
    IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS ( IC analysis):
   the analysis of sentence in terms of its immediate constituents: word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into  their own immediate constituents.
          A   (Sentence)
      B             C
The girl              ate the apple
    This tree contains three Nodes.
    The top-most node, A, is the mother of the two lower nodes, B and C.
    B and C are daughters of the same mother, and so we refer to them as sister nodes.
    The simple tree in the above represents a constituent of category A which is composed of two parts, one of category B and the other of category C, occurring in that order.
    The immediate constituents themselves can be constructions of specific types, for instance, the nominal phrase “The girl” can be further analysed into “The (Determiner) + girl (Noun)”.
    Thus, “The girl” is the construction of a nominal phrase, whereas “The” and “girl” are its constituents.

    When a tree diagram is used to represent the constituent structure of a grammatical unit (e.g. a phrase or sentence), syntactic categories are used to label the nodes; the most common of these are listed in the following:
Phrasal level
NP=noun phrase
AP=adjective phrase
VP=verb phrase
PP=preposition phrase
Phrase structure rules
    The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase:
    NP  (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.
    VP  (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.
    AP  (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to
    PP  (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
The XP rule
Specifiers
    Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.
Complements
    Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.
    e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;
   There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase.
    e.g. appear, break, put…;
    a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent. I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.
Sentences (the S rule)
       S  NP VP
Tree diagram
Infl realized by a tense label
Infl realized by an auxiliary
Bracketing
    In contrast to tree diagram, BRACKETING is not so common, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent structure of a grammatical unit.
    (((The) (girl))  ((ate)  ((the)  (apple))))
    [[[The] [girl]]  [[ate]  [[the]  [apple]]]]
    Advantages: demonstrate clearly the internal structure  of a sentence, and account for ambiguities.
   e.g.  more |expensive|| clothes
           more|| expensive| clothes
3) Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions
    The syntactic constructions analyzed are of two main types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents.
    En C: one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.
    Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.
    Ex C: the opposite of En C.  a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group.
    basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.
    The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)
    He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)
    He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)
    John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)
    Endocentric constructions:
    COORDINATION: a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . .
    These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.
    Coordination of NPs:
    [NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]
    Coordination of VPs:
    [VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]
    Coordination of PPs:
    [PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]
    Coordination of APs:
    [AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]
    Coordination of Ss:
    [S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].
    Such a structure is usually considered to be doubly headed, since both of the conjoined elements function as heads of the larger unit.
    That is, in a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur as daughters and co-heads of a higher S.
    One property: no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.
    [NP A man, a woman, a boy, a cat and a dog] got into the car
    SUBORDINATION: the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
    Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head, as shown in the underlined parts of the constructions. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.
    two  dogs
          Head
    (My brother) can drink (wine).
                                 Head
    Swimming in the lake (is fun).
       Head
    (The pepper was)  hot  beyond endurance.
                                 Head
Subordinate clauses
    Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents, the three basic types of subordinate clauses are:
    complement clauses
    adjunct (or adverbial) clauses
    relative clauses
    John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman]. (complement clause)
    Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner]. (adverbial clause)
    The woman [that I love] is moving to the south. (relative clause)
5. The transformational-generative approach
    Chomsky ,1957, syntactic structure
1) syntactic category:
    a lexical category or a phrasal category performing a particular grammatical function
    Lexical category:
  N.  V.  Adj.  Adv.
    Phrasal category:
  NP, VP, PP, AP
2) Deep structure & surface structure
    Consider the following pair of sentences:
   John is easy to please.
   John is eager to please.
    Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.
    Consider one more sentence:                 
    Flying planes can be dangerous.
    It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.
    Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.
    Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the  sentence as it is pronounced or written.
The organization of the syntactic component
    Consider the derivation of the following sentences:
   What languages can you speak?
   What can you talk about?
    These sentences may originate as:
   You can speak what languages.
   You can talk about what.
3) Syntactic movement and movement rules
   SM: the movement of any constituent in a sentence out of its original place to a new position
   aux-movement
   Do-insertion
   wh-movement
6. functional approach
      the Prague school布拉格学派
      Mathesius 马泰休斯
    Communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.
   The theme carries the lowest degree of CD within the sentence, while the rheme carries the highest degree of CD within the sentence.
7. systemic-functional  grammar
      Halliday
    ideational function: Language serves for the expression of the speaker’s experience of the real world.
    interpersonal function: Language serves for the establishment and  maintenance   of social relations.
    textual function: Language has to provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which  it is used.
8. Syntactic Function
    the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
    Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.
1) Subject
    In some languages, SUBJECT refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.  in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case.
    In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the doer of the action, while the object is the person is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.
    This definition seems to work for these sentences:
    Mary slapped John .
    A dog bit John.
    but is clearly wrong in the following examples:
    John was bitten by a dog.
    John underwent major heart surgery.
    In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).
    Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic).
    Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as
    Bill is a very crafty fellow.
    but fails in others, such as
    (Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.
    As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.
    All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.
    These sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.
    It seems that we cannot reliably identify the subject of a sentence with either the agent or the topic. Rather, we use grammatical criteria to develop a workable definition.
    What characteristics do subjects have?
Word order
    Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:
    Sally collects stamps.
    *Collects Sally stamps.
Pro-forms
    The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:
    He loves me.
    I love him.
    We threw stones at them.
    They threw stones at us.
Agreement with the verb
    In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular.
    However, the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:
    She angers him.
    They anger him.   
    She angers them.
Content questions
    If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in
    John stole/would steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from the British Council.
    Who stole/would steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from the British council?
    But when any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.
    If the basic sentence does not contain an auxiliary verb, we must insert did or do(es) immediately after the question word, as in:
    What would John steal, if he had the chance?
    What did John steal from the British Council?
    Where did John steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from?
Tag question
    A TAG QUESTION is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.
    John loves Mary, doesn’t he?
    Mary loves John, doesn’t she?
    *John loves Mary, doesn’t she?
2) Predicate
    a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.
    It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.
    The boy is running.
    Peter broke the glass.
    Jane must be mad!
    As predicate includes constituents such as verb, object, complement, etc., people find it illogical to use a class-term, namely, the verb, in grammatical analysis of a functional nature.
3) Object
    OBJECT:  traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into DIRECT OBJECT and INDIRECT OBJECT.
    Mother bought a doll.
    Mother gave  my sister  a doll.
                           Ind. Obj.  Dir. Obj.
    In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro­nouns).
    Mother gave a doll to my sister.
    John kicked me.
    Modern linguists (e.g. Chomsky, Halliday) suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.
    John broke the glass. (The glass was broken by John.)
    Peter saw Jane. (Jane was seen by Peter.)
    Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.
    He died last week.
    The match lasted three hours.
    He changed trains at Tianjin. (*Trains were changed by him at Tianjin.)
    The boys are playing football. (Subj. and Obj.)
    the Summer Palace (Modifier)
    He came here last month. (Adv.)
    He changed trains at Tianjin. (Comp.)
9. Recursiveness递归性
    a rule that can reapply to a form that is itself partly or wholly derived by it.
    e.g. an NP can contain a PP, such as the fish in the pool, and a PP can again contain an NP and the NP can contain another PP,such as the fish in the pool in the garden
    I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new.
    Recursiveness, together with openness, is generally regarded as the core of creativity of language.
    John’s sister
    John’s sister’s husband
    John’s sister’s husband’s uncle
    John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.
    that house in Beijing
    the garden of that house in Beijing
    the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing
    a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing
    CONJOINING : the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.
    The sentences made up in this way can be understood as instances of coordination.
    The conjunctions used in this case are and, but, and or.
    John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.
    Give me liberty or give me death.
    Embedding: the means by which one clause is included in the main clause in syntactic subordination
  Three basic types of subordinate clauses:
    Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.
    Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.
    Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.
                             exercises
    Define
    syntax
    co-occurrence
    constituent
    endocentric
    exocentric
    category
    recursiveness
    embedding
2. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence.
  1) The boy was crying.
  2)  shut the door.
  3) open the door quickly.
  4) the happy teacher in that class was    beaming away.
  5) he bought an old car with his first pay cheque.
3. Tell if each of the following is endocentric or exocentric .
  1) take a rest
  2) an extremely difficult job
  3) ladies and gentlemen
  4) at present
  5) swimming in the lake
4. Explain the main characteristics of subjects in English.
 楼主| Amy1006 发表于 10-10-4 16:34:46 | 显示全部楼层

胡壮麟的语言学课件第5章

Chapter Five
        Semantics
Focuses:
    Semantic triangle
    Leech’s 7 types of meaning
    Sense relation
    Componential analysis
    Sentence meaning
1. Definition:
    Semantics: the study of meaning;
   More specifically,  the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
The basic area of study:
    the meaning of signs
    relations between different linguistic units
2. Approaches to meaning:
    What is the meaning of sputnik?
    I didn’t mean to hurt you.
    Life without faith has no meaning.
    Fame and riches mean nothing to the true scholar.
意义:
     语言文字或其他符合所表达的内容。
    e.g. 节约就是不浪费的意思。
     价值;作用。
    e.g. 人生的意义
    Naming theory (Plato)
    The conceptualist view
    Contextualism (Bloomfield)
    Behaviorism
    Truth conditions
Naming theory (Plato)命名论
Words are names or labels for things.
    N.: objects or events
    adj.: properties of those objects or events
    V.: actions
    Adv.: the properties of those actions
    Plato(柏拉图):词义就是事物、行为和属性的名称,或者说词语有指义或命名的功能。
    Russell(罗素):一个词的意义就是一个对象,即一个词意指着某客体,也就是代表着一个客体。
    Limitations:
   1) Applicable to nouns only.
   2) There are nouns which denote things that
       do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost
   3) There are nouns that do not refer to
       physical objects but abstract notions, e.g.
       joy, impulse, hatred…
   4) Some words may have different meanings
       in different contexts.
   5) The same reference may have different
        names.
The conceptualist view概念论(ideational theory)
    there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle
    The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker;  and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
    1. 形式与意义直接相关,用实线连接。意义通过符号形式来表达,形式是语义的载体。
    2. 意义是在各观事物的基础上概括而成的,是客观事物在头脑中的概括反映,两者也有直接联系,用实线连接。
    3. 形式和所指之间没有必然的联系,故而两者间用虚线连接,所以同一事物可以用不同的形式来表示。
The contextualism 语境论
    I am near the bank.
    “black”: black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning;
  The context determines the meaning.
Situational context:
    The setting;
    The speaker and hearer;
    The activities;
    Other participants;
    External objects and events.
Linguistic context: the probability of words or expressions co-occurrence or collocation.
The linguistic model of contextualism
    Language is always used in a certain context.
Important figures of contextualism
     Malinowski: For a large class of cases……the meaning of a word is its use in the language.
     Firth: We shall know a word by the  company it keeps.
     Halliday: Meaning is the bridge between linguistic forms and situation.
A problem with the contextualism
    Context is such a complicated concept, consisting of so many factors.
    如:世界知识、语言知识、集体知识、参与者、背景、正式程度和基调、媒介、语篇因素、表现等。(胡壮麟 2002:“语境研究的多元化”)
Behaviorism 行为主义论
    Behaviorists: “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.
    the meaning of the sentence “I’m Thirsty” :
                  Jill                         Jack
            S________ r …… s ________ R
                      S = Jill sees an apple
                      r  = Jill says “I’m Thirsty”
                      s = Jack hears Jill says “I’m thirsty”
                     R = Jack picks the apple for Jill
         Jill                         Jack
    S________ r …… s ________ R

    Meaning consists in the relationship between speech indicated by the small letters r…… s and the practical events represented by the capitalized letters S and R that precede and follow them respectively.
Important Figures of Behaviorism:
Watson:词的意义就是对词的有条件的反应。
Bloomfield(布龙菲尔德):意义就是讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应。(meaning as speaker’s stimulus and hearer’s response)
  Problems:
    在许多不同的情景中,语词和词句的意义是相同的。
    意义不能等同于听话人的反应,因为:
(1)对同样的话语可以有不同的反应。
(2)对不同的语言有同样的反应。
(3)对话语没有反应。
(4)人们往往要先搞清话语的意义才可能作出反应。
Truth conditions真值条件
* The king of France is bald.
* The declaration of independence was signed in 1976.
* Knowing the meaning of a sentence
  is to know the conditions under
  which the sentence is true or false.
* Knowing the meaning of a word or expression is to know the part it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it.
3. Leech’s 7 types of meaning
   1974, Semantics: The Study of
    Meaning.
   7 types of meaning:
    Conceptual meaning
    Connotative meaning
    Social meaning
    Affective meaning
    Reflected and meaning
    Collocative meaning
    Thematic meaning
Conceptual meaning概念意义
  (‘denotative, logical or cognitive’ meaning).
    desk: a piece of furniture with a writing surface and usually drawers or other compartments
    Bird: warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrates characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified as wings
    Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. 一个词本身所代表的字面意义或核心意义。
    two sides: sense (意义)and reference(所指)
    Sense: concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.
    意思、涵义、意义、或系统意义:指与语境无关、仅涉及语言内部成分之间关系的意义,它是意义的中心.
the sense of “dog”:
      A common 4-legged flesh-eating animal, esp. any of the many varieties used by man as a companion or for hunting, working, guarding, etc.
    Reference(所指): what a linguistic form refers to in the physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
    指称意义、照应关系、所指意义、参照、或外指意义:即表明词语跟语言外部世界的关系的意义。
    Look at the picture.
  In it, Mary is
  saying, “Oh!  I love
  this dog very
  much!”
  What does the “dog” refer to?
   The dog in front of Mary!
Reference Vs. Context
     Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
     Linguistics forms with the same reference might differ in sense.
     Meaning =  sense     +    reference
                Semantics Vs. Pragmatics
Differences:
    意义具有相对的稳定性、明确性;而所指会因人、时、地而异,具有变化性、模糊性。
    一般说来,意义是抽象化了的定义,多具有非物质化特征;而所指会具有物质化的特征。
    有意义的词语都有系统意义,但不一定有所指。
Connotative (associated) meaning  内涵意义
    e.g.  old (and worn out)
           blue (and down-hearted)
           sweet (lovely)
           孩子(幼稚,不懂事)
  The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.
  通过语言所指所传达的意义
    A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.
    Vary from age to age, from society to society, from individual to individual
    Involving the ‘real world’ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.
    Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.
    Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.
附加在概念意义上的意义,社会、阶
级、阶层、集团或个人都可以给一个
词附加上内涵意义。
woman: frail, prone to tears, emotional, inconstant;
  compassionate, hard-working
Social meaning社会意义
    domicile: very formal, official
    residence: formal
    abode: poetic
    home: general
    steed: poetic
    horse: general
    nag: slang
    gee-gee: baby language
Social meaning:
   An expression conveys about the contexts or the social circumstances of its use, mainly stylistic meaning of an utterance.
   所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义
    Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.
    Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.
    Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.
    Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.
    Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.
    Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.
Affective (emotive) meaning
感情意义
    I hope for the sake of peace and stability that Clinton will prove himself more statesman than politician.
    干部,当官的
    Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.感情意义:所传达的关于说话人或作者感情,态度方面的意义
Reflective meaning(联想意义)
Cock:intercourse,
            ejaculation,
            erection,
            sex
     what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.
    这是一种能引起听者或读者联想的意义,当你听到或读到它们时,会马上联想起别的事情来。
  Collocative meaning搭配意义
    pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.
    handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.
    clear case, clear conscience
    what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.
    通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。
Thematic meaning 主题意义
    Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.
    The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.
    They stopped at the end of the corridor.
    At the end of the corridor, they stopped.
    What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.
    通过词序和各种强调方式表达出来的意义。两个句子,一个用主动结构,一个用被动结构,尽管所指的事实或所谈的内容相同,但句子的意义不完全一样。
4. Major sense relations
    Synonymy (同义词)
    Antonymy (反义词)
    Polysemy(多义性)
    Homonymy (同音异义)
    Hyponymy (下义关系)
Synonymy
    buy/purchase
    thrifty/economical/stingy
    autumn/fall
    flat/apartment
    tube/underground
    the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
1) Dialectal synonyms: used in different regional dialects
     e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline…  
2) Stylistic synonyms: differing in style. e.g. kid, child, offspring;
           start, begin, commence
3) Synonyms differing in their emotive or evaluative meaning. e.g.collaborator- accomplice,…
4) Collocational synonyms,
   e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …
5) Semantically different synonyms. e.g. amaze, astound,…

Antonymy
    husband-wife,
    pass—fall;
    true—false;
    present—absent;
    married---single
  Words are opposite in meaning.
Gradable antonyms
    e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short
    Gradable antonyms: there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,
good --- bad
    long --- short
    big ---small
Features:
    Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.
    Can have comparative forms.
    Can be asked with how.
Complementary antonyms
    e.g. alive-dead, male-female
    Complementary antonyms: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
    alive : dead
    male : female
    present : absent
    innocent : guilty
Relational (Converse) antonymy:
    buy : sell
    lend : borrow
    give : receive
    parent : child
    husband : wife
    teacher : student
    above : below
    before : after
Relational (Converse) antonymy:exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items.
Polysemy多义词
    e.g. “table”:
    A piece of furniture
    All the people seated at a table
    The food that is put on a table
    A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.
    Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.
   The same word may have more than one  meaning.
Homonymy(同音异义)
    night/knight
    Lead (n.)- lead (v.)
    ball (n.球)- ball (n.舞厅)
    Homonymy:the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
    Homophone:when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign
    Homogragh:when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear (n.)-tear (v.)
    Complete homonym: when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. bank, watch, scale, fast
Hyponymy(下义关系)
fruit:  apple, orange, pear
furniture: desk, chair, bed
    Hyponymy:the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
    Inclusiveness:A is included in / a kind of B.  rose and flower
    Superordinate(上义词): the word which is more general in meaning.
    Hyponyms(下义词): the word which is more specific in meaning.
    Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.
5. Sense relations between sentences
    (1)   X is synonymous with Y
    (2)   X is inconsistent with Y
    (3)   X entails Y
    (4)   X presupposes Y
    (5)   X is a contradiction
    (6)   X is semantically anomalous

X is synonymous with Y
    X: He was a bachelor all his life.
   Y: He never got married all his life.

    X: The boy killed the cat.
   Y: The cat was killed by the boy.

    If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.
X is inconsistent with Y
    X: He is single.
    Y: He has a wife.

    X: This is my first visit to Beijing.
    Y: I have been to Beijing twice.

    If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.
X entails Y(X蕴涵Y)
    X: John married a blond heiress.
    Y: John married a blond.

    X: Marry has been to Beijing.
    Y: Marry has been to China.


    Entailment: a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.
    If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.
   (下义词蕴涵着上义词,上义词和下义词之间存在着蕴涵关系。)
  Entailment: a relationship between two or more sentences . If knowing that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second.  It is concerned with the meaning of the sentence itself. It does not depend on the context in which a sentence is used.
   蕴涵是两个或更多句子(命题)之间的一种关系。如果已知第一个句子真实给出关于第二个句子真实性的某些信息,那么第一个句子蕴涵第二个句子。它涉及的是句子本身的意义,不依赖于句子使用的上下文。
    A. john picked a tulip.
    B. john picked a flower.

    A. I saw a boy.
    B. I saw a person.


X presupposes Y
    X: His bike needs repairing.
    Y: He has a bike.

    Paul has given up smoking.
    Paul once smoked.
    Presupposition: a semantic relationship or logical connection. A Presupposes B, that is, B is prerequisite of A .
     A: The queen of England is old.   
     B: England has a queen.
    In term of truth value: If A is true, B must be true. If A is false, B is still true; If B is true, A is either true or false. If B is false, no truth value can be said about A.
     In formula: A→B
                      -A→B
X is a contradiction
    *My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
    *The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.
X is semantically anomalous
    *The man is pregnant.
    *The table has bad intentions.
    *Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.
6. Componential analysis
wife: [+HUMAN] [ADULT]
           [+MALE] [-MARRIED]
father:[+MALE] [+ASCEND]
           [-DESCEND] [+LINERL]
    a way to analyze lexical meaning. based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
    a process aiming at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties, which are also called components by some linguists.
  One way of describing the components of a word is to use feature symbols, which are usually written in capitalized letters, with “+” “-“ before them, plus sign indicates the presence of a certain property, and minus sign indicates the absence of it.
walk: [+NATURAL] [-HURRIED] [+FORWARD][+ONE FOOT ALWAYS ON GROUND]
Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]

    kill: [CAUSE] [DIE]
    rise: [BECOME] [MORE] [HIGH]
    raise: [CAUSE] [BECOME] [HIGH]
    father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)
    x is a parent of y, and x is male.
    take: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)))
    x causes x to have y.
    give: CAUSE (x, (~HAVE (x, y)))
    x causes x not to have y.
Strong Points
    provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships that are related in meaning.
    Show the hyponymy relation between words:
    man: [+ADULT] [+HUMAN] [+MALE]
    bachelor: [+ADULT] [+HUMAN] [+MALE]
                     [UNMARRIED]
    Define the natural categories:
     [+HUMAN] 有关人类的名词
     [-ANIMATE] 非动物名词
    explain relationship between some sentences:
    John is a bachelor. 蕴涵:
    John is a man.
Weak Points
    水可以用H2O来定义,而语义却不能用同样严格的方法借助义素来定义(熊学亮 2003:98),因为:
    1. 我们无法确定什么样的词语可以用作义素。义素自身可能被进一步分解。如是,义素和词语互相定义不但是把一种语言译成另一种语言册游戏,还仍然有可能是语义学理论最终回到循环论证的老路上去。
    2. 定义所用的所有义素可能不足以穷尽词语的内涵。如:
    Bachelor:[+MALE +ADULT –MARRIED]
    然而这种定义仅涉及该类人的一般情况,有时并不能与真实世界中的事实相提并论。如:教皇、和尚、长期与另一男或女同居的男人、一部分离婚者等。因此,有关的语用、社会、文化、意识等方面的因素也应该是词义定义时要考虑的辅助对象。
    3. 分解寓意既不与真实世界挂钩,也不与认识世界挂钩,只不过是有一种符号体系(如元语言)去代替、阐述或说明另一种符号体系(如自然语言)的意义的做法,给人一“两头不着边”的感觉。(熊学亮 2003:98-100)
    4. 总体上说,无论是语义特征本身,还是语义特征分析法,都是主观性的。因此,目前作为一种科学方法,语义特征分析法在理论上还没有形成一整套成熟的操作规程。
7.   Sentence Meaning
    The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.
    The cat is chasing the mouse.
    The mouse is chasing the cat.

    I have read that book.
    That book I have read.

    The daughter of Queen Elizabeth’s son is the son of Queen Elizabeth’s daughter.
Compositionality组合性
    the meaning of a sentence depends on: the meanings of the constituent words: the way they are combined.
    句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定,这一观点通常叫做组合性。
An integrated semantic theory
    1963, Katz & Postal
    Two parts:
   Dictionary;
   projection rule
     Dictionary:
  a) grammatical classification:
      hit– Vtr;    ball---Nc
      (grammatical or syntactic marker)
  b) semantic information:
     bachelor:
     who never
        
a set of projection rules(投射原则)
   a lexical item has specific information about syntactic categories which it projects onto the structure of the sentence. It is responsible for combing the meanings of words together.
   词性具有句法分类方面的信息,而且会将这些信息投射到句子结构中去。
     give: 有两个名词片语作补语,它可以把这个信息投射到下列句子中去。
     she gave the accountant the file.
    Selection restrictions: semantic restrictions on which lexical items can go with what others. “regret” requires a human subject.
    Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.
     Green clouds are sleeping furiously.
     Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.
    According to the principle of compositionality, each word in the lexicon is equipped with certain components and combinations of words into sentences must go through certain selection restrictions in order to produce acceptable sentences.
    Proposition:
   A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.
   命题是陈述句被用于陈述事件时所表达的意义。
    e.g. John has passed his driving test.
           His parents will buy him a Porsche.
          If John has passed his driving test,
           his parents will buy him a Porsche.
  A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value. It is either true of false.  the truth value of a composite proposition is said to be the function of , or is determined by, the truth values of its component propositions and the logical connectives used in it.命题的一个极为重要的性质是有真值,它要么真要么假。复合命题的真值是成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词来决定着。
5 usual logical connectives
    the negative connective ~(否定连词not )
    the conjunctive &(合取连词 and)
     the disjunctive connective ∨ (析取连词 either…or)
     the implicational (conditional) connective →(蕴含连词)
     the equivalent connective≡(等值连词if and only if, only when, exactly when).
Propositonal logic:
Negation(否定):
    p: John is a doctor.
    -p: John is not a doctor.
    -p=p   p&q
    She cannot sing and dance.
    She cannot both dance and sing.
    She cannot dance or sing.
Conjunction (合取关系)
    Students who do not arrive in time or have not completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the exam.
Implication 蕴涵关系
  If Ann has passed her driving test, her parents have bought her a Porsche.
    Ann has passed her driving test and her parents have bought her a Porsche.
    Ann has not passed her driving test and her parents have bought her a Porsche.
    Ann has not passed her driving test and her parents have not bought her a Porsche.
Equivalence 等同关系
    Mary will pass the exam if her result on the written test is satisfactory.
    Mary will pass the exam if and only if her result on the written test is satisfactory.
8. Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析
     a way proposed by G. Leech to analyze the sentence meaning.  In this framework, the basic unit is called predication(述谓结构), which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
A predication consists of argument(s) (述元,主目)and predicate(谓词).An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
Examples
(1) Tome smokes.
(2) Tom is smoking.
(3) Tom has been smoking.
(4) Tom, smoke.
(5) Does Tom smoke?
(6) Tome does not smoke.
More Examples
    (1) Is the baby sleeping?
    (2) It is hot.
    (3) Kids like apples.
    (1) BABY (SLEEP): one-place predication
    (2) (BE HOT): no-place predication
    (3) KID, APPLE (LIKE): two-place predication
exercises:
    Define:
   1) conceptual meaning        2) sense
   3) reference                4) hyponymy
   5) proposition            6) hyponymy
   7) superordinate
   8) compositionality
   9) entailment
  10) presupposition
    2. what relationship do they have between each other?
  1) tree—maple       2) flour---flower
  3) lend ---borrow    4) male –female
  5) big—small
  3.illustrate the difference between sense and reference.
  4. how is behaviorism different from mentalism in the study of meaning.
5.account for the difference between the following two sentences in  terms of presupposition.
  a) John admitted that the team has lost.
  b) John said that the team has lost.
6.Explain with examples the various types of antonyms in English.
7.Based on the model of componential analysis, analyze the following words:
   teacher; typewriter; chopsticks
    teacher: [+HUMAN] [+KNOWLEDGEABLE]  [+INSTRUCTIVE] [+RESPECTABLE]
    typewriter: [+MACHINE] [+TYPEWRITING]
    Chopsticks: [+PAIR] [+EAT] [+TOOL]
 楼主| Amy1006 发表于 10-10-4 16:35:47 | 显示全部楼层

胡壮麟的语言学课件第3章

Chapter Three
    Focuses:
  1. the definition of word
  2. classification of words
  3. types of morphemes
  4. inflection and word-formation
  5. lexical changes
1. What is word?
1) word?
  a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
  a minimal free form: a smallest form that can occur by itself
Three senses of “word”
(1) A physically definable  unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks, eg
    Phonological:
    Orthographic: It is wonderful.
  Three words are recognized.
    However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes:
    Phonological:
    Orthographic: It’s wonderful.
   Are they two words or three?
(2) both a general term and a specific term:
   boy, boys: one or two?
   walk, walks, walking,   walked:   one or four?
  (3) A grammatical unit: the grammar of a lge contains a set of layers, and word is one of them:
sentence
clause
phrase
word
morpheme
2) Identification of words
    Stability: stable linguistic units in respect of their internal structure.
    chairman, but not *manchair
    Relative uninterruptibility:
  new elements are not to be inserted into a word
    A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, eg
    --Is Jane coming tonight?
    --Possibly.
    Hi.
    Wonderful.
3) Classification of words
(1) in term of variability: Variable vs. Invariable Words:
    Variable words (grammatically different forms):
   write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.
    Invariable words (no inflective endings): since, when, seldom, through, etc.
(2) In terms of meaning: Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:
    Grammatical/Function words (express grammatical meanings ): conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.
    Lexical/Content words (having lexical meaning): nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
(3)In terms of membership: Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:
    Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.
    Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
(4)Word class:  Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. Noun, verb, adj, adv, prep, pron, conj, inter, article, etc.
    Some new terms in word class:
    1) Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc.
    2) Auxiliary: do, have
    Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.
3) Pro-forms( 代词形式): substitutes for other terms.
    Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone
    Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.
    Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did.
    Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.
    Pro-locative(代处所词): He went there.
4)Determiner(限定词): all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.
    Predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third, three-quarters, double, twice, three times
    Central determiners:
    this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no, neither, my,  our, your, his, her, its, their
    Postdeterminers: (include cardinal numbers, ordinal numerals, general ordinals)
  next, last, past, other, additional,  many, several, few, little, a lot of ,  
    when different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they follow the order of pre-determiners+  central-determiners+ post-determiners.  Eg. all their trouble
         all the five boys
2.MORPHOLOGY
1) Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed.
Inflectional morphology:
    the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.
Inflection
    Nominal forms: boys, boy’s
    Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting
    Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest
Derivational morphology: the process of word variation signaling lexical relationships, compound: two separate words to produce a single form.
   derivation: add an affix to an affix to an already existing form to create a word.
Compound
    Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.
    Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill
    Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit
    Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree
    Preposition compounds: into, throughout
Endocentric & exocentric
    Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg
    self-control: a kind of control
    armchair: a kind of chair
    Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of  “a kind of something”, eg
    scarecrow: not a kind of crow
    breakneck: not a kind of neck
Written forms of compounds
    Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard
    Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length
    Open: coffee table, washing machine
    Free variation:
    businessman, business-man, business man
    winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle
    no one, no-one, noone
Derivation
    Class-changing:
    N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard
    N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless
    V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant
    V>A: acceptable, adorable
    A>N: rapidness, rapidity
    A>V: deafen, sweeten
    Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly
    Class-preserving:
    N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet
    V>V: disobey, unfasten
    A>A: grayish, irrelevant
2) Morpheme语素
  The smallest meaningful unit of language, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
  e.g. un-accept-able; days;jumped
Allomorph 语素变体:
   the different variants of a morpheme are called allomorphs.
   e.g. the plural morpheme “-s”:
    dogs; pests; houses
          [z]                  [iz]
Types of morphemes
   (1) Free vs. Bound morphemes:
    Free morphemes:  occur alone, constitute words by themselves,
   eg. boy, girl, table, nation.
    Bound morphemes: cannot occur alone, appear with at least another morpheme ,
   eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.
   root, affix and stem
   root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,
  eg friend as in unfriendliness.
Roots may be
    free:  can stand by themselves, eg. nation+-al;
    bound: cannot stand by themselves, eg. -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.
    Affix: the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
    prefix (dis-, un-) and
    suffix (-en, -ify).
    Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,
   eg. friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.
(2) inflectional & derivative morpheme (bound)
  IM: provide further grammatical information about the existing lexical item.  
   e.g. worked; bigger;
  DM: create an entirely new word.
   e.g. antislavery
  3) Lexical change
    Formation of new words
    Phonological change
    Morphosyntactic change
    Semantic change
    Orthographic change
Formation of new words
★  Invention/Coinage

Mostly brand names:
    Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xerox, Lycra
★ Blending
    transfer+resistor>transistor
    smoke+fog>smog
    motorist+hotel>motel
    breakfast+lunch>brunch
    modulator+demodulator>modem
    dance+exercise>dancercise
    advertisement+editorial>advertorial
    education+entertainment>edutainment
    information+commercial>infomercial
★ Abbreviations(Clipping)
Back-clippings: ad(vertisement),  lab(oratory), piano(forte),
    Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus,  (tele)phone, (earth)quake.
    Fore-and-aft clippings:  (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive).
★ Acronym
    AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
    ASAP: as soon as possible
    CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory
    dink(y): double income, no kids
    WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant
    AI: artificial intelligence
    a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible
    ECU: European Currency Unit
    HIV: human immunodeficiency virus
    PC: personal computer
    PS: postscript
    RSVP: répondez s’il vous plait (‘please reply’ in French)
★ Back-formation逆构词法
    An unusually abnormal type of word formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.   
  e.g. television ---> televise
         editor --  edit
        peddler - peddle
★ Analogical creation类推造字
    From irregular to regular:
    work: wrought > worked
    beseech: besought > beseeched
    slay: slew > slayed?
★  Borrowing借词法
    French: public, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, study
    Latin: admit, client, conviction, custody,
    Greek: acme(顶点), bathos(突降法), catastrophe,
    Spanish and Portuguese: tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla
    Italian:  bandit, broccoli, piano, pizza
    Dutch: apartheid, booze, boss, brandy,
    Hebrew: amen, babel
    Arabic: admiral, zero
    Indian: bungalow, veranda
    Chinese: chop suey(烩菜), chow(吃), chow mein(炒面), ginseng(人参),  ketchup (or catchup or catsup番茄酱), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoon
Types of borrowing words
    Loanwords:借词
   au pair(以做家务来换取食宿的人), encore(再来一个),  sputnik(人造卫星)
    Loanblend混合借词
   coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)
    Loanshift转移借词(meaning is
    borrowed, the form is native)
   bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte
    Loan translation, or calque (equivalent translation)
    free verse < L verse libre
    black humor < Fr humour noir
    found object < Fr objet trouvé
Phonological change: change in sound leading to change in meaning
    Loss of sound:
   loss of sound in fast speech, eg library, laboratory
    Addition of sound:
    English: rascal > rapscallion
    Metathesis换位: changing the sequence of sound
    brid > bird,  ox/ax > ask
    Assimilation:
   impossible, immovable
   irregular, irresponsible
   illogical, illegal
Morphosyntactic change
    Morphological change:
   third person singular present tense:
   -(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth
   > -(e)s: does, goes, has, finds
    the campus of the university > the university’s campus
    Syntactic change:
  He saw you not. > He didn’t see you.
    Fusion/blending:
   equally good + just as good >
    equally as good
Semantic change
    Broadening:
  holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest
   bird: young bird > any kind
   task: tax > work
    Narrowing:
   meat: food >
   girl: young person > young woman
   deer: beast > a special kind of animal
    Meaning shift:
   bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood
    Class shift: conversion to other word classes
   engineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)
    Folk etymology(俗词源): a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.
   e.g. history > herstory
Manhattan: man with hat on
MBA: married but available
PhD: perhaps have divorced
golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden
Orthographic change
    Change of spelling:
    Iesus > Jesus
    sate > sat
    Sunne > Sun
4) Lexicon
    general sense: vocabulary
    technical sense: analysis and
     creation of words, idioms and
     collocations
Lexeme(词位,词素):
     the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units; an abstract unit and may occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts
   e.g. the lexeme speak: speak, speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken
Features of English lexicon:
     borrow constantly from other lges;
     a rapid expansion of knowledge and tech
     people always desire for originality;
     the num of verbal taboos has been growing;
     social changes is constantly taking place
Idioms:
    Semantic unity: meaning cannot be predicted by adding up the meaning of constituent words.  
       do sb brown
    Structural stability: cannot alter or substitute its component words of ones own will
Proverbs: in the form of sentence, succinct in lge and pregnant in meaning.
    An army travels on its belly.
    兵马未动,粮草先行.
    Fish begins to stink at the head.
    鱼要腐烂头先臭.( 上梁不正下梁歪 ).
    Exercises:
1. define:
  1) morpheme
  2) inflectional morphemes
  3) bound morphems
  4) morphology
  5) inflection
  6) stem

2. Label the morphological category of the morpheme underlined in each of the following expressions:
   1) I’ve been there.  2) transform
   3) oxen               4) recur
3. Illustrate the difference between root and stem.
4. What are the methods for the addition of new words in the English language? Explain the various word-formation processes and give an example for each process.
5.What are the three semantic changes in historical linguistics? Give examples to show your point.
5. 1) broadening: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.  
     holiday:  holy day in religion--- a day for rest
     2) narrowing: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.      
       meat: food---- the edible flesh of animals
     3) meaning shift: the departure of a word from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.
       bead: prayer --- the prayer bead--- small ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood
4. 1) compounding: add one base to another; or join two separate words to produce a single one
    2) derivation: grammatical or lexical information is added to the base
    3) conversion:  a word is altered from one part of speech to another without the addition of any morpheme
    4) abbreviation: a long word is shortened by clipping either the front or the back part of it
    5) back-formation: a shorter word is derived by delecting an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language
6) blending: two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.
7) borrowing:
 楼主| Amy1006 发表于 10-10-4 16:36:41 | 显示全部楼层

胡壮麟的语言学课件第7章

Chapter 7
Language, Culture and Society
Focuses:
The relation between language and mind: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
    Language variation
    language planning
1. Language and Culture
  1) Culture:
    the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language.
    local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.
Eugene Nida: 5 sub-culture
1) ecological c
2) linguistic c
3) religious c
4) material c
5) social c
2) The relationship between L & C
    L is the carrier of c, and it is an essential part of a given c and the influence of c on a given l is intrinsic and indispensable. C finds a better representation through l use.
    L is part of c as socially acquired knowledge.
    L does reflect the c of a society, but only in certain aspects, esp in its hierarchy of vocabulary and its discourse patterns. A l may boast an abundance of terms in certain domains, which may indicate the focus of c. changes in c result in new types of discourse. The popularity of certain types of discourse may reflect cultural concerns.
Some cultural differences in language use
    Greetings and terms of address
    Thanks and compliments
    Color words
    Privacy and taboos
    Rounding off numbers
    Words and cultural-specific connotations
    Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor
Culture-loaded words
    烫手的山芋 vs. hot potato
    雨后春笋 vs. spring like mushroom
    大鱼大肉、鱼肉百姓、酒肉朋友
   meat and potatoes, meat and drink to someone
    kill the goose that lays the golden eggs” vs.“杀鸡取卵”
    Cold words vs. 冷言冷语
    Constant dropping wears the stone. 滴水穿石
    Diamond cut diamond. 棋逢对手
    Kill a man when he is down. 落井下石

        2009年中国主流报纸十大流行语
    六十大庆
    国进民退
    气候
    打黑
    甲流
    3G
    被
    钓鱼
    潜伏
    偷菜
2008 年中国主流报纸十大流行语
    北京奥运
    金融危机
    志愿者
    汶川大地震
    神七
    改革开放30年
    三聚氰胺
    降息
    扩大内需
    粮食安全
  2007年中国主流报纸十大流行语
     十七大
    嫦娥一号
    民生
    香港回归十周年
    CPI(居民消费价格指数)上涨
    廉租房
    奥运火炬手
    基民
    中日关系
    全球气候变化。
2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语
    和谐社会
    社会主义新农村
    青藏铁路
    自主创新
    社会主义荣辱观(八荣八耻)
    中非合作论坛
    长征精神
    消费税
    非物质文化遗产
    倒扁
2005年中国主流报纸十大流行语
    保持共产党员先进性教育
    “十一五”规划
    神舟六号(神六)
    节约型社会
    和平发展
    一篮子货币
    油价上涨
    同一个世界同一个梦想
    连宋大陆行
    取消农业税
    Intercultural or cross-cultural communication: communication between people from different cultures (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)
    In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:
Our lge will mould our view
of the world.
    Cultural overlap : the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as
   “Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”
Cultural diffusion
    Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion.
    One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.
    The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.
    The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)
    Two points :
  1) linguistic determinism: Lge may determine our thinking patterns
  2)  linguistic relativity: similarity between lge is relative. for two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.
Two versions:
    a strong one: emphasize the decisive role of l as the shaper of our thinking patterns.
    a weak one: there is a correlation between l,c and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.
3) culture in language teaching:
   three objectives to teach c in l teaching :
  To get the Ss familiar with cultural differences
  To help the Ss transcend their own c and see things as the members of the target c will
  To emphasize the inseparability of understanding lge and understanding c through various classroom practices
Linguistic evidence of cultural differences:
    Terms of address
    Greetings
    Thanks and compliments
    Privacy and taboos
    Color words
Cultural overlap and diffusion
    Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and becomes part of culture B.
    Loan words in Japanese, Chinese, English.
    肥皂剧、卡通、布丁、苹果派、雀巢、巴士、排挡、耐克、因特网、KTV、EMAIL
    Typhoon, gongfu, etc.
    2. Language and Society
1)The relationship between Language and society
    L is a mirror of society, through which we can understand social activities of a certain society better. L is both a scientific system and a social activity. It is the major bond of people’s communication in society.
    The selection of l is restricted by structural rules and involves some socially institutionalized norms in usage.
   In this sense, the choice of one form over another is both stylistically and socially governed.
  Therefore some social factors are believed to influence our l behavior in a social context. Some major factors:
    class;  gender; age; ethnic identity; education background; occupation; religious belief
2)Sociolinguistics
     the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between lge and society, between the uses of lge and the social structures in which the users of lge live.
    Micro-studies: To look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it, or a worm’s-eye view of L in use.
    Macro-studies: To look at society as a whole and consider how L functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations, a bird’s eye view of the lge used in society.
Language varieties(语言变体)
lge changes along social changes, from region to region, from one social group to another, from individual to individual.
The products of such changes: l varieties
    Dialect
    Register
    Lingua franca
    Pidgins and creoles
Dialect:
A variety of lge used recognizably
in a specific region or by a specific
class.
    Regional dialects: varieties of a lge spoken in a geographical area, such as:
   British English and American English.
Social dialect (sociolect): the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
   distinguished by gender, age, ethnic group, religion, class
Language and Gender
*Compared with men, women tend to use such adverbs:horridly, abominably, immensely, excessively, amazingly, so, most, etc.
   The overuse of these words imply that the users are sentimental, shallow and not objective enough.
e.g. Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a most excellent ball. …Jane was so admired. Every body said how well she looked. Mr. Bingley thought her quite beautiful, …I was so vexed to see him stand up with her. … I am quite delighted with him. He is so excessively handsome!   ---------“Pride and Prejudice”
W:  You always leave your papers about dear!
H:   Really? Didn’t I put them in place yesterday?

In a sense, the overuse of the words of absoluteness or extremity may cause changes in the meaning of a word at least in the eye of a man.
*Women have their own vocabulary for emphasizing certain effects:
   females:  so good, such fun, exquisite,  lovely, divine, precious, adorable, darling, fantastic.
   neutral:  great, terrific, cool, neat
*Aside from specific lexical items, there are differences between the speech of women and that of men in the use of particles that grammarians often describe as “meaningless”.
 Male: Shit, damn, darn it, the hell
 Female: Oh dear, dear me, goodness me, my goodness,
*Women use more tag questions.
*Women use more statement questions with a rising intonation at the end.
*Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and more polite.
The upper class:
   America, cake
The lower class:
   the States, pastry
    Temporal dialects:
varieties of lge used at a particular stages in its historical development.
  e.g. classical Chinese
         modern Chinese
    Idiolects:
   varieties of lge used by individual speakers, with particularities of pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
    e.g. Shakespeare's lge
           Lunxun’s lge
Register(语域)
    L varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations. (lge varies according  to use)
    Registers differ in vocabulary, phonology, grammar, and semantics.  e.g.
  pickled, high, drunk, intoxicated
(the least formal --- the most formal)
    Registers may also vary along certain dimensions.
    E.g. intimate, distant; formal, informal; serious, jocular
Halliday: registers determined by 3 factors:
    The field of discourse: what is happening, what is talking about.  
   E.g.The fields of religion, linguistics, advertising
    The mode of discourse: the medium of lge activity which determines the lge role in a situation.
    E.g. Speech and writing
    The tenor of discourse(话语体式): the relations among the participants in a lge activity.     E.g. colloquial, formal
A lecture on linguistics in a school of foreign lges can be analyzed as:
   Field: linguistics
   Mode: oarl (academic lecturing)
   Tenor: participants
Degree of formality
---Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)
    Intimate: Up you go, chaps!
    Casual: Time you all went upstairs now.
    Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs right away, please?
    Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once.
    Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor by way of the staircase.
            Lingua francas (通用语)
    A lingua franca is a variety of lge that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds. For this reason, a lingua franca must be an agree-upon common tongue used by people thrown in social contact for various purposes.
    Broadly speaking, lingua franca is any other lge used as a trade or communication medium. The standard Chinese lge in China is a lingua franca. English is also a lingua franca used for international communicative purposes.
Pidgin(洋泾浜语):
    Definition: a special lge variety that mixes or blends lges and it is used by people who speak different lgs for restricted purposes such as trading.
Pidgin: not a native language of anyone.
    learned informally in contact.
    used esp. as trade language.
    involves the mixture of two or more Ls.
  Eg. Nigerian Pidgin English; Vietnamese Pidgin French; New Guinea Pidgin German, etc.
    上海话中的洋泾浜英语
    “蹩脚”(BILGE,船底污水,引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的)
    “大兴”(DASHY,浮华的,华而不实的,引申为假的、冒牌的、劣质的)
    "肮三"(ON SALE,二手货贱卖,引申为垃圾货、形容人的品质低劣)
    “瘪三”(BEG SIR,乞丐先生,用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人,后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一:
    "赤佬"是英语"CHEAT"(欺骗)和中文"佬"的混生词语,一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语(隐语);
Creole(克里奥尔语):
    Definition: When a pidgin has become the primary lge of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native lge.
    Features: the structure of the original pidgin is expanded, the vocabulary vastly enriched, new syntactic-semantic concepts developed.
   E.g. a French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population of Haiti. English-based creoles are used in Jamaica.
Language change
    Causes of l change
    Lexical change
    Sound change
    Syntactic change
Causes of l change:
     historical cause
     social cause
     pragmatic and psychological cause
     scientific and technological     development
     political cause
     the increase of international contact
    Historically, English has been changing throughout its history. England was conquered by the French-speaking Normans in 1066. For many years after the Norman Conquest, French was used for writing most important documents, and English was comparatively little used for writing. Before the Norman Conquest, the West Saxon dialect used by King Alfred had achieved a prominent position in England, and this West Country variety was increasingly regarded as the standard form to be used in writing English.
    After the Conquest, however, no single variety of English possessed any particular prestige, and consequently every writer of English was inclined to use his or her own local variety and to spell it in whatever manner he or she liked. Thus, various kinds of words went into English, such as crown, country, duke, court, judge, jury, crime, battle, arms, soldiers, siege.
    social cause: Lge change may result from the change from one social group to another or the interaction of one social group with other groups. social centers and prestige groups change constantly, as demonstrated by migration patterns, whether from rural areas to cities, from inner cities to suburbs, or from city to city. The greatest change can be found in the lower middle class, and lower-middle-class teenagers in particular.
    Because lower-middle-class speakers, especially teenagers who are just beginning to enter the economic system, feel that a linguistic feature such as r-fulness in American English is a marker of social acceptability, they cultivate it so much that in self-conscious speech they actually use it more than the class they are modeling themselves on. Speakers almost always think they speak a more prestigious and consistent variety.
    Lge change may result from the constant pragmatic and psychological need to use different rhetoric devices to facilitate communication. The avoidance of particular words for social reasons seems to occur in all lgs and euphemisms arise in their place. Admittedly, English euphemisms play an effective, or sometimes a crucial role in easing off awkward situations or elevating embarrassing atmosphere.  
    The use of euphemisms is largely motivated by people's consideration of politeness. Conditioned by standards of social morality, almost all lges contain, at least, a few words or phrases that are included in the list of taboos. such as death, disease and physiology are not supposed to be touched explicitly.
    E.g. die: pass away, depart one's life, pay the debt of nature, give up the spirit, join the majority, kick the bucket.  elderly people: senior citizens.  the poor: the underprivileged. sanitary engineer: garbage collector.
    Scientific and technological development :  New technical terms keep coming into people's daily life.
    E.g, advance in science and technology: telegram, telephone, lumberjack, cybernetics, bionics, sociolinguistics.
    space exploration and aviation: satellite, launching pad, cosmonaut, space suit,  etc.
    political cause: The special political life of the US has produced some words unique only to the Americans, such as assemblyman, Senate, Congress, senator, congressman, running mate, lynch. Furthermore, political movements of feminism and political correction have brought about new words and expressions. Some people prefer the use of chairperson instead of chairman.
     The increase of international contact: Communication with speakers of other lges could lead to lge change. During the sixteenth century, English borrowed many words from French and Italian because Englishmen were in contact with speakers of these lges. In Korean we find many words borrowed from Chinese and Japanese but few before this century from European lges. Russian has borrowings from Mongol, but none from the American Indian lges.
    Lexical Change: There is a constant change in the vocabulary of the language. New words may be added. Some words may become obsolete. And a new dimension in meaning may be attached to an existing word. All this is achieved mostly in the following processes.
   Borrowing
   Creation of New Words
   Shifts in Meaning
    Sound Change:
The tendency toward greater ease of articulation is most often held responsible. In fact, words such as table and face, which had  at the time of borrowing, underwent a sound change in English during the fifteenth century. The vowel was raised and fronted to [ei]. Along with native name, gate, bake, we find face and table going through the same change in pronunciation.
    Change in “agreement” rule
    Change in negation rule
    Process of simplification
    Loss of inflections
    Syntactical change: Some differences between the sentence structures in Old English and those in Modern English involve word order. Perhaps, the most evident change in the form of English sentences was the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes from many parts of speech. It involves the loss, the addition and the modification of rules.
Language policy and language planning
    Language Policy:
   what a government does either officially through legislation, court decisions or policy to determine how lges are used, cultivate lge skills needed to meet national priorities or to establish the rights of individuals or groups to use and maintain les.
    Language planning : a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of a lge or lge variety within a speech community. It is also used by a variety of non-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots organizations and even individuals.
    Standard language: a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of a lge. Used by the government, the judiciary system, the mass media, and in educational institutions.
    E.g. Chinese mandarin
    National language: the full set of all regional, social, and functional variants of a historically and politically defined linguistic community. It is considered as a national identity.
    Official language: used in official situations in nation or an institution.
Choosing a code
    Diglossia
    Bilingualism
    multilingualism
    Diglossia(双言制) : the situation where in some speech communities two very different varieties of the same lge are used  side by side, with each having a definite role to play.
the two are standardized to some degree.
   The more standard one: High-variety
   The other one: Low-variety
Switzerland:
High German as the standard (public, official)
Swiss German as the vernacular (informal, daily)

E.g. in Arabic-speaking countries.
The high variety: used in lectures, religious speeches and formal political talks.
The low variety: used in local dialect of colloquial Arabic.
    Bilingualism(双语制): the situation where in some speech communities two lges are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and lge switching occurs when the situation changes.
  e.g. Quebec: English and French
   Welsh:  Welsh and English
Code-Switching: Bilinguals often switch between their two lgs in the middle of a conversation.
    “Hi,你好呀!This morning,我们对你的case进行了discuss,我们发现,这对我们没什么benefit。所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你:与这件事相关的所有Project都将被cancel掉。”
    “事实证明,Download已经不吃香了,Portal也正在逐渐没落。ISP与ICP都没有什么很Power的招数了。MyGod,我们的前途究竟在哪里?Pageview、Impression,我们真正缺乏的是如何让访问者Onceagain的内容与形式。”
“我是beast……那你呢……”
    “我比你少一个A, ……所以我是Best。”
辛楣吃晚饭回来, ……问鸿渐道:“你在英国到过牛津、剑桥没有? 他们的tutorial system 是怎么一回事?”
这种同情比笑骂还难受, 鸿渐咬牙来个中西合璧的咒骂: “To Hell 滚你妈的蛋!”
    什么年代吹着什么样的风
我拿我的麦克风
唱出old school show
yall ready to roll
70的年代
复古我最high
disco fever
从来不肯say goodbye
    歌曲:快乐崇拜        歌手:潘玮柏vs张韶涵
    为顺应社会规约交际者通过语码转换可以避免社会性的尴尬
(Two flies are copulating in front of a boy and his mother)
Child: Do you know what these two flies are doing?
Mother: No.
C: Ils font L'amour [法语意为 "They are making love".]
M: Ok, Ok.
C: You know, if I'd said this in Arabic, you would have left the room immediately.
(三位研究生在他们坐火车去国内某地开会的途中)
A 去澳大利亚都看了些什么?
B 啊看到的东西太多了,比如美丽的城市,清净的乡村,对了,黄金海岸的沙滩和海水太美了!
C 有没有去看Stripper?
B Frankly speaking, yes. It was really a different experience. And the performers have excellent figures. Oh, amazing …
    交际者可以利用语码转换实现趋吉避讳、创造幽默、标志身份等种种心理动机
(C 请Y替她去监考)
C: 星期天你要不要监考?
Y: 监考? 监什么考?
C: 自学考试。我星期天上午正好有课, 所以想请你帮个忙。
Y: Sorry, I canpt help you, because I have an appointment .
C: That’s OK。
Y: 那你再问问其他专业的研究生, 看怎么样。
C: 好吧, 谢谢你!

    方便功能
Eg. 辛楣吃晚饭回来, ……问鸿渐道: “你在英国到过牛津、剑桥没有? 他们的tutorial system 是怎么一回事?”
    引用功能
Eg. 今天是作文的日子, 孙小姐进课堂就瞧见黑板上写着: “Beat down Miss S. Miss S. is Japanese enemy !”
    强调功能
Eg. ……哲学家碰见问题, 第一步研究问题: 这成不成问题, 不成问题的是假问题Pseudoquestion, 不用解决, 也不可解决。
    回避功能
Eg. 柔嘉不耐烦道: “没有结! 要穿, 你自己去买。我没见过像你这样nasty的人! ……”
    社会地位标志功能
Eg. 鸿渐拿了几件, 看都是“成化”、“宣德”、“康熙”, 也不识真假, 只好说: “这东西很值钱罢?”
  “Sure! 值不少钱呢, Plenty of dough。并且这东西不比书画。买书画买了假的, 一文不值, 只等于waste paper。瓷器假的, 至少可以盛菜盛饭。我有时请外国friends 吃饭, 就用那个康熙窑油底蓝五彩大盘做Salad dish, 他们都觉得古香古色, 菜的味道也有点old-time。”
    汉语规范受到英语和方言的冲击
    趋洋的非常心态
•    你中午call我,一齐去食lunch, 点啊?
•    你个computer如果肯贴上写少money,换一个mon就搞掂。
•    请每天早上6点半给我一个morning call。
•    做秀、派对、克力架、芝士
Multilingualism: a situation where three or more lgs are used by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
   Such as: Singapore, Israel, Malaysia, India, Nigera, etc.
       Linguistic taboos
       and euphemisms
taboo: words or activities that are considered inappropriate for “polite society”.
euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects.
 楼主| Amy1006 发表于 10-10-4 16:37:38 | 显示全部楼层

胡壮麟的语言学课件第9章

Chapter 9
Discourse analysis
Focuses:
    1. discourse
    2. cohesion
    3. coherence
    4. schema
1. Discourse
Numerous approaches to study lge,  two distinct perspectives: lge as system and lge as activity.
lge as system: try to describe the whole of it, which is made up of three layers (sub-systems): meaning (the semantic system), wording (the syntactical system and the morphological system) and sounding (the phonological system).
  lge as activity: studying the way lge is used for real-life communication and social interaction (e.g. chatting, lecturing, writing an email).
   They observe that there is an interaction between activity and system. 1) we need to draw on our knowledge of lge as a system to communicate; 2)we are constantly picking up new stuff , which we add to our store of that knowledge.
    Lge as activity in social interaction is technically termed discourse. It is a general term for examples of lge use, i.e. lge which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of lge such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews.
    The linguistic form (or record) of discourse is called text. The same text may function as different discourses in different situations.  
    E.g. “what a nice day” on a sunny spring day and saying so on a bitterly cold winter day are different discourses, yet they have the same text.
   Discourse is:
    lge above the sentence or above the clause
    a continuous stretch of spoken lge larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit
    a stretch of lge perceived to be meaningful unified, and purposive; lge in use
    (viewed) as social practice determined by social structures
    Structural or textual definition of discourse:
    Discourse is a particular unit of language (above the sentence).
    Functional definition of discourse: Discourse is a particular focus of language use.
Structural approach to discourse
    Find the constituents that have particular relationships with each other and that can occur in a restricted number of arrangements;
    Problems: units in which people speak do not always look like sentences, or grammatically correct sentences. Example 1:
    Jack is tall and kind and don't hardly say anything. Love children. Respect his wife, Odessa, and all Odessa Amazon sisters (Celie’s Diary)  
                    (----“The Colour Purple”, Alice Wharton)
    Example 2: Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (Chomsky);
    Solving the problem: adopt Lyons’s distinction between system-sentences and text – sentences.   SS are well-formed abstract theoretical sentences generated according to the existing grammar rules; TS are context-dependent utterances or parts of utterances which occur in everyday life.
    The discourse analysis will be concerned with text-sentences.
Functional approach to discourse
    Roman Jakobson: lge performs six functions:
    Addressor(emotive);
    Context (referential)
    Addressee (conative);
    Contact (phatic);
    Message (poetic);
    Code (metalinguistic).
    Utterances may have multiple functions;
    The major concern: discourse analysis can turn out into a more general and broader analysis of lge functions. Or it will fail to make a special place for the analysis of relationships between utterances.
2 .  Discourse analysis
     DA and pragmatics share the interest in lge use, yet they have different concerns.  Pragmatics studies “intended speaker meaning”.
    A: I have a fourteen-year-old son.
    B: Well, that’s all right.
    A: I also have a dog.
    B: Oh, I’m sorry.
    Pragmatics would tell us that both A and B are performing indirect speech acts: A makes a request, which B accepts; then A makes another request, which B declines. Although the conversation looks disconnected at first sight, we can make perfect sense of it by imagining a familiar dialog between a would-be tenant and a landlord.
If we change the conversation into this:
A: I have a fourteen-year-old son.
B: Nice day, isn’t it?  
A: I also have a dog.
B: I’ m fine.
However hard you try, you probably cannot but give up and say, “ this doesn’t make any sense”.
  In other words, the first conversation is coherent while the second one is not. The question is, how do you know this? Obviously, pragmatics cannot help you here.
    Now let’s consider written language.
         SLOW
         CHILDREN
     AT PLAY
   You probably need not take much trouble to figure out that this sign is meant to caution car drivers to slow down so as not to endanger children at play. However, it is not altogether impossible to see “slow” as a modifier of “children”, meaning “mentally retarded”. But you will probably dismiss this interpretation as irrelevant even if it comes to your mind. Why?
       So our question may be formulated like this: when you listen to or participate in a conversation, or when you read sth written (be it a road sign, a story, a letter, or a piece of news,) how do you “make sense of ” what you hear or read, i.e. how do you tell coherent discourse from disjointed gibberish(乱语)?  to answer questions like this--- a thriving branch of linguistics: discourse analysis.
    In technical terms, discourse analysis is the study of how sentences in spoken or written lge form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc.
     It deals with: how the choice of articles, pronouns, and tenses affects the structure of the discourse; the relationship between utterances in a discourse ,and the moves(话步) made by speakers to introduce a new topic, change the topic, or assert a higher role relationship to the other participants
3. Cohesion and Coherence
    In text linguistics, a text is a communicative act, which can be either spoken or written. It is believed that there are certain standards by which we tell texts from non-texts. Some text linguists propose that there are as many as seven “constitutive principles of textuality” and three “regulative principles” which a text must fulfill.  cohesion and coherence
  3.1 Cohesion衔接
      From the chapter on syntax we learn that components that make up a sentence must be connected according to syntactical rules. Similarly, there are certain rules that govern the way sentences are connected in a text. These rules are studied in terms of cohesion.
           
  Cohesion:the grammatical and / or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between parts of a sentence. Cohesion concerns the surface structure of a text. It can be defined as the network of lexical, grammatical and other relations that link various parts of a text.
   
Five cohesive devices:
   Reference
        Substitution
            Ellipsis
                Conjunction
                     Lexical cohesion
    Reference
   “reference ” in semantics: the relationship between a word and what it points to in the real world . In our discussion of cohesion, that sort of reference is called “presented reference”给出的指称 (i.e. it introduces sth new to the text), as distinct from “presumed reference”假定指称 (i.e. mentioned in such a way that we need to retrieve their identity from somewhere else in the text).
    I have a daughter. (Daughter is a presented reference item, as the reader dose not need to have any precious knowledge about what I have.) She is very nice. (She is a presumed reference item, as the reader needs to retrieve the identity of she to follow the text.)
   Only presumed reference creates cohesion in a text, as it creates ties between the presumed reference item and its referent.
  The commonest presumed reference items are:
   The definite article the;
   Demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, those;
   Pronouns he, she, they, it, etc.
    Substitution
    the replacement of one item with another. It is often used to avoid repetition.
   ---Do you like playing the guitar?
   --- I do.
    Substitution can be
    Nominal, e.g. one, ones, the same.
    This watch doesn’t work. Go and fetch me another one.
    I’m going to keep those boxes. The ones I want to get rid of are in the garage.
    John resigned and started his own company. I’d do the same if I had the chance.
    Verbal, e.g. do, does
    Clausal, e.g. so, not
    A: Will it be a fine day tomorrow?
    B: I think so.
    Ellipsis
     a special form of substitution (substitution by zero). Something is left unsaid, yet it is readily understood.
    nominal ellipsis: Take one of these tickets. I still have seven left.
    verbal ellipsis:
     John bought some chocolates, and Joan some biscuits.
       A: Are you watching TV?
       B: Yes, I am.
    clausal ellipsis:
     A: Why are you leaving?
     B: Because it’s late.  
    Conjunction
    the logical relations between parts of the text. It is often realized in the form of conjunctive items.
    It can express four types of logical relation :
    Additive添加 (and , or, also, furthermore, in addition, besides, likewise, similarly, incidentally, by the way, by contrast, for instance, in other words, etc.)
    Adversative相反 (but, yet, however, though, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless, at any rate, as a matter of fact, rather, etc.)
    Causal因果 (so, consequently, hence, it follows, for, because, that being so, under the circumstances, for this reason, etc.)
    Temporals时间 (then, next, previously, finally, at last, after a moment, etc.)
    Lexical cohesion
     Lexical cohesion is cohesion through the use of words, i.e. the writer or speaker relates the text consistently to its area of focus through the selection of lexical items. A given lexical item cannot be said to have cohesive function per se, but it may enter into a cohesive relation with other lexical items in a text.
     two types: reiteration and collocation.
    Reiteration重现:repetition of lexical items. A reiterated item may be a repetition of an earlier item, a synonym or near-synonym, a super-ordinate, or a general word.
    There is a boy playing with fire.
    The boy is going to burn himself if he doesn’t take care. (repetition)
    The lad is going to burn himself if he doesn’t take care. (synonym)
    The child is going to burn himself if he doesn’t take care. (super-ordinate)
   The idiot is going to burn himself if he doesn’t take care. (general word)
   collocation:the tendency of certain lexical items to co-occur.
    A little fat man of Bombay
    Was smoking one very hot day
    But a bird called a snipe
    Flew away with his pipe
    Which vexed the fat man of Bombay
    There is a strong collocation bond between “smoking” and “pipe”. Similarly, if you read the word “mouse” in text, you will not be surprised to come across such words as “cheese”, ”tail” and ”rodent” nearby in the text.
  3.2  Coherence
    Interestingly enough, the use of cohesive devices alone may not produce texts that “make sense”. Consider the following passage:
    I bought a Ford. A car in which President Wilson rode down the Champs Elysees was Black. Black English has been widely discussed. The discussion between the presidents ended last week. A week has seven days. Every day I feed my cat. Cats have four legs. The cat is on the mat. Mat has three letters.
    The passage appears to be strewn with cohesive ties (e.g. Ford-car, black, Black, my cat-cats), yet probably no one would call it a coherent text. From this example we see that there must be other factors than cohesion that enable us to judge if a stretch of a language makes sense. These factors are studied in terms of coherence.
    Coherence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in text. It concerns people’s ability to match the text with their experience or their understanding of the word. If a stretch of a ge is in line with some experience or their “common sense”, it will be recognized as a meaningful text.
    When you read the conversation cited at the beginning of this chapter, for example, you will find yourself trying to imagine a situation that would fully accommodate it. IN other words, you try to fill in the “gaps” in texts by drawing on your experience or encyclopedic knowledge.
    Coherence is sth underlying the text--- semantic connections, logical connections or temporal sequence. It is created by our real life knowledge. Cohesion is the verbal realization of coherence in the form of cohesive devices. As we see in the last sample passage.
    George studied law in Cambridge. And he is now a lawyer.
    George studied law in Cambridge. He is now a lawyer.
   The absence of the conjunctions “and” in the second sentence does not affect coherence at all. We know from our experience that being a lawyer is a likely outcome of studying law.
   In summary, there can be no meaning cohesion without coherence, but coherence without cohesion may be perfectly possible.
4   The schema theory
    As mentioned above, we rely on our real life knowledge to interpret discourses. But how do we apply such knowledge to the perception of coherence? Some linguists have proposed the scheme theory as an answer.
    A schema is a mental representation of typical instances of discourse. You may imagine it to be a video file stored in your brain.
“asking the way”: you say hello to a stranger, ask him or her the way to some place, get the answer and say thank you.
    There are numerous video files like this, or numerous schemata, in your brain, which are activated when you encounter discourses. Though we may not be aware of it, the existence of schemata is a great help in our understanding of texts.
    所谓图式是指围绕某一个主题组织起来的知识的表征和贮存方式。人的一生要学习和掌握大量的知识,这些知识并不是杂乱无章地贮存在人的大脑中的,而是围绕某一主题相互联系起来形成一定的知识单元,这种单元就是图式。比如,我们见到某种动物的图片,就能很快想起它的名称、性情、生活习性等很多有关该动物的知识。这说明该动物的外观特征是与它的名称、性情、生活习性等有关知识是联系在一起贮存在人的大脑中的。所以说,图式实际上是一种关于知识的认知模式。图式理论研究的就是知识是怎样表征出来的,以及关于这种对于知识的表征如何以其特有的方式有利于知识的应用的理论。
Consider the following instructions from a bottle of cough syrup:
    Fill measure cup to line.
    Repeat every 2 to 3.
Of course you do not have to keep filling the measure cup every two to three hours. Nor do you have to rub the syrup in your hair every two to three hours. You know you are supposed to drink it because you have a schema of such instructions on medicine bottles.
    Schemata may also help to clear up ambiguity. For example, if we encounter the sentence
    They caught many soles that day.
    We know that sole here refers to a kind of fish, rather than a part of the foot/shoe, because the word “caught” activates the schema of fishermen catching fish.
    However, schemata may also be a barrier to understanding when they have become stereotyped. Consider the following quiz item:
    A woman is walking on the beach, but she has left no footprints behind her. Why?
    If you fail to figure out that the woman is walking backward (or come up with such spooky answers as “she’s a ghost”), you probably have a schema in which one can only walk forward!
    When things like this happen, the mind will adjust the old schema or create a new schema so as to adapt to the new experience.
5.  Information structure: theme and rheme
   Consider the following excerpt from a text:
    The Greenwood Boys are a group of popular singers. At present, they are visiting all parts of the country. They will be arriving here tomorrow.
      Of course the short passage reads smooth and natural. Now suppose we change it into this:
    The Greenwood Boys are a group of popular singers. All parts of the country they are visiting at present. Tomorrow, here they will be arriving.
      The sentences remain grammatical, yet the passage reads somewhat awkward, doesn’t it? Does that have something to do with word order in sentences?
    it is often taken for granted that English has a fixed word order. Take the declarative sentence for example.  its structure as “SVOA”----Subject + Verb + Object + Adverbial. However, this kernel sentence structure may be altered to bring elements to the front of the sentence (this movement is called “fronting”).
    So, apart from Michael wrote a very good novel last year, we can create
       A very good novel Michael wrote last year.
       Last year Michael wrote a very good novel.
       What Michael wrote last year was a very good novel.
       Michael, he wrote a very good novel last year.
    But why would we like to change the basic structure of a sentence? To answer question like this, we need to take a functional approach to English grammar. In this part, we shall discuss two of the most important terms in functional grammar: theme and rheme.
1) Clause, theme and rheme
       Theme and rheme are usually discussed at the level of clause. A clause is a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.
    E.g. the clause she is very young can either stand alone as a simple sentence or be part of a complex sentence---- Although she is very young, she speaks three languages.
    As shown by the above example of the variations of a sentence, a writer or speaker can decide where to start the clause. The beginning of each clause is its theme主位. It is the starting-point for the message. The rest of the clause tells the reader or hearer something about the theme.
    That “rest of the clause” is called rheme述位. The theme is the framework or point of departure of a message. The rheme is what is speaker or writer wants to convey about the theme.
    In English the theme is marked in intonation as a separate tone unit, frequently followed by a brief pause. It always occurs in the initial position of the clause. Theme and rheme are also discussed in terms of given and new information: usually, theme is given information, while rheme is new information.
    In English, what is new tends to appear at the end of a clause. The following sentences have different themes:
    I’m writing handouts for my students.
    For my students, I’m writing handouts.
    Handouts I’m writing for my students.
2)  Types of theme
   three types of theme:
  Textual theme (discourse marks and conjunctions话语标记和连词), e.g.
    However, she would not listen to me.
     Now, that is something interesting.
  Interpersonal theme (vocative呼语), e.g.
      Dad, look at that cat!
Interpersonal theme (finite verb, modal adjunct情态动词, wh-theme,etc.),e.g.
   Can you solve this mathematical problem?
   Did you watch the new Hollywood movie?
   Whose desk is this?
Ideational theme (subject, complement, etc.), e.g.
    Tom Sawyer is the hero of a novel by Mark Twain.
    Over the bridge flew the plane.
    More than one of these types of theme may occur in the same sentence, forming what is called multiple themes.
    When multiple themes occur, they usually follow the same order: textual + interpersonal + ideational. While the textual and interpersonal themes may be absent, the ideational theme is always present. In fact, the demarcation line between theme and rheme always fall at the end of the ideational theme.
    主位可以根据本身结构的复杂程度分成“单项主位”(simple theme)、“复项主位”(multiple theme)和“句项主位”(clausal theme)三种。如果主位是一个独立的整体,不可以再分成更小的功能单位,这就称为单项主位。复项主位是由多种语义成分构成的主位。它总是含有一个表示概念意义的成分,另外还可能含有表示语篇和人际意义的成分。如果这三种成分都出现在同一个主位中,它们的排列顺序通常是语篇成分先于人际成分,人际成分先于概念成分。句项主位指的是由整个小句充当主位。传统语法所说的主从复合句中的主句和从句都可以成为句项主位。
    主位结构与信息分布的关系
    语言是一种交际工具,它除能表情达意外, 还传递信息。但在语言信息传递过程中,各语言成份的信息价值是不同的,构成句子的成份虽然都是信息的载体,但荷载的信息值不同。信息结构是把语言组织成为“信息单位”(information unit)的结构,也可以说是已知信息与新信息相互作用从而构成信息单位的结构。对于听话者来说,有些信息内容是已知的,即已知信息(Given);有些则是未知的,即新信息(New)。这些荷载已知的、新的信息的语言单位在语言的线性排列中不是任意的,其分布能体现不同的交际价值。在话语/语篇交际中,人们传递信息的顺序是从已知到未知,即将新的信息内容置于句末的语调群核心,而已知信息的交际价值较小,大多放到句子的前面。句末是信息中心的中性位置。

    正由于此,人们在说话或写作中倾向于将新的或比较重要的内容放在句子的末尾。这就是人们在话语交际中遵循的“尾重原则”。“尾重原则”是对说话者和作者运用语言而言。对于交际对象即听者或读者来说,语句的末尾部分赋予听者或读者较高的注意价值。语言学家称其为“无标记焦点”(又称“末尾焦点(end-focus)”)。在话语使用中,处于句子末尾的内容往往得到一定强调或突出,或借助一定语调能唤起听或读者的某种情感,或表达说话者的某种态度,产生某种特定的效果。
    主位结构与信息分布具有紧密的联系,主位所载的信息往往是已知信息。但是,由于主位与已知信息、述位与新信息并没有绝对的对应关系,因而我们不能把语言成分出现的前后顺序看作研究信息分布的唯一标准。
但是在实际翻译中,很多人不注意这些问题,从而使译文与原文的信息侧重点发生了改变。以下例子中,“T”表示主位,“R”表示述位。
在实际翻译中,主位部分出现的问题。
(1) 原文:Giu: What’s that awful noise upstairs?
    Beth: It woke me up at five o’clock in the morning.
    译文:吉尔:楼上是什么声音那么吵啊?
    贝丝:我早上五点就被吵醒了。
解析:首先,对贝丝的话进行主位、述位分析:
Beth: It (T) [Given] // woke me up at five o’clock in the morning (R) [New].
在原文中,处于句首的是单项主位 (simple theme),即上文已经出现过的已知信息“it (noise声音)”,而述位部分是新信息。
    译文:贝丝:我(T) // 早上五点就被(它) [已知信息]吵醒了。
    在译文中,原文单项主位已知信息“它”被放到句子后面述位部分,得到了进一步的强调,这与原文的语意侧重点明显不同。
因此,在翻译的时候最好根据原文把信息值最低的已知信息“it (noise声音)”放在句子主位的位置,作为话题的出发点。改译如下:
    改译:贝丝:早上五点就把我吵醒了。
(分析:(它)(T) [已知信息] // 早上五点就把我吵醒了(R) [新信息]。)
(2) 原文:Kevin: Do you still have those documents I emailed you from China?
    David: The ones I never read. Yes, I have them.
    译文:凯文:我从中国用电子邮件寄给你的那些文件,你还留着吗?
    大卫:我一直没读那些。有啊,我留着呢。
解析:首先,对大卫的原话进行主位、述位分析:
    David: The ones (T) [Given] // I never read (R) [New]. Yes, I have them.
在原文中,处于句首的是有标记性单项主位 (marked simple theme),即上文已经出现过的已知信息“the ones (those documents那些文件)”,而述位中置于句尾焦点(end-focus)的是新信息“never read(一直没读)”。
译文:大卫:我(T) // 一直没读那些[已知信息]。有啊,我留着呢。
在译文中,“那些”被放到句尾重心的位置,被当作是新信息起到了强调作用,会让读者产生误解,以为只有没读的文件还留着,而读过的文件可能就没有留下来。[点评:分析有一定道理,原译确实在衔接上不自然,有歧义]
因此,在翻译的时候,应该把原文单项主位,即信息值最低的已知信息“the ones (those documents那些文件)”放到主位的位置,作为话题的出发点,把新信息“一直没读”放到句尾重心来加以强调。因此,改译如下:
改译:大卫:那些啊,我一直没读。有啊,我留着呢。
(分析:大卫:那些啊[已知信息] // 我一直没读[新信息]。有啊,我留着呢。)
可修订为:那些文件啊,我没看过。不过,我可留着呢。
(3)她三天才来看我一次,你一天就来三次
    译文:You come to see me three times a day, but she only comes once every three days
    解析:首先,对原文进行分析:
    她三天才来看我一次 (T),// 你一天就来三次 (R)。
    本句所含的信息有两个,所强调的应该是后面“你一天就来三次”,含有责怪你来的太多,而不是她来太少。
    译文:You come to see me three times a day (T), // but she only comes once every three days (R).
    而译文正好相反,把原文的主、述位正好弄反了,强调了她。众所周知,英文里转折词BUT后面才是新信息,是作者所要表达的真正意图。
    改译:She comes to see me only every three days, but you do three times a day.
(分析:She comes to see me only every three days (T), but you do three times a day (R).)
在实际翻译中,述位部分出现的问题。
    原文:B:Yoga, developed by the ancient sages of India, is a system of personal development encompassing body, mind and spirit that dates back more than 5000 years.
    A:“瑜伽”从印度演化而来,那这个词是不是有特殊的含义呢?
    译文: A:Does the word “Yoga” itself carry a certain special meaning, with its evolution from India?
    解析:首先,根据上下文,对原文进行分析:
    A:“瑜伽”从印度演化而来[已知信息],那这个词是不是有特殊的含义呢[新信息]?
    在原文中,根据上下文可以看出:“‘瑜伽’从印度演化而来”是已知信息,其信息价值较低,因此不应该被放在句尾重心部分;而新信息是“是不是有特殊的含义”,其信息价值最高,通常情况下翻译后应该被放在句尾重心加以强调。
    译文:A:Does the word “Yoga” itself carry a certain special meaning [New], with its evolution from India [Given]?
    在译文中,在译文中,主位和原文主位相一致。但述位部分出现了差异: “‘瑜伽’从印度演化而来(with its evolution from India)”被放到述位中末尾焦点的位置,当作是新信息起到了强调作用;相比之下,真正应该得到强调的新信息“是不是有特殊的含义(carry a certain special meaning)”却放到了已知信息的前面。原文和译文的侧重点存在明显差异。
    因此,在翻译的时候,应该把信息值最低的已知信息“‘瑜伽’从印度演化而来”提前,把新信息“是不是有特殊的含义”放到句尾重心来加以强调。因此,改译如下:
    改译:A:Does the word “Yoga” with its evolution from India [Given] carry a certain special meaning [New]?
        修订为:Does the word “Yoga” ,with its evolution from India ,carry a certain special meaning [New]?
     原文:下刘姥姥听见这般音乐,且又有了酒,越发喜的手舞足蹈起来。
    译文:  Now the music, on top of the wine, set Granny Liu waving her arms and beating time with her feet for cheer delight.
    解析:原文里刘姥姥是话题,“越发喜的手舞足蹈起来”是描述她高兴的情形,属于新信息,给大家一种视图,脑海里内视她高兴的情形。有动态在里面。
    译文:  Now the music, on top of the wine (T), // set Granny Liu [Given] waving her arms and beating time with her feet for cheer delight (R).
    而译文里music 成了话题,Granny Liu 成了间接宾语,没有了动态的感觉在内。
    改译:Granny Liu, listening to the beautiful music, drinking the delicious wine, delights [G?]to wave her arms and beat time with her feet.
(分析:Granny Liu, listening to the beautiful music, drinking the delicious wine (T), // delights to wave her arms and beat time with her feet (R).)
    Another important distinction is that between “unmarked” and “marked” ideational themes. Unmarked ideational themes are: subject in a declarative; finite verb plus subject in a yes/no question; wh-element in a wh-question; lexical verb (together with you or let’s if present) in an imperative. Sometimes other constituents are “promoted” to the theme position, forming marked ideational themes. The most common type of marked ideational theme is the adjunct (adverb or adverbial clause or sentence to modify the meaning of the verb).
For instance:
Unmarked themes in declarative sentences (ideational theme = subject):
  No, I think it is pretty easy.
Marked themes in declarative sentences (ideational theme ≠ subject)
  And when you get down there you find he hasn’t actually got any.
  Inside him was rising an urge to do something, take some action.
Unmarked themes in yes/no questions, wh-questions and imperatives:
    Would you like a cup of tea?
    But don’t you see it’s impossible to get there in time?
    Now that you’ve done your homework, why not go out and play with your friends?
   Look at that funny man!
   Let me have a look.
6  Conversation Analysis
      Conversation analysis (CA) is an important branch of discourse analysis. It is the analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life. It includes the study of how speakers decide where to speak during a conversation, how the utterances of two or more speakers are related, and the different functions that conversation is used for. Of interest are such issues as turns, adjacency pairs and preferred second parts.
1 ) Turn-taking话轮
      It is typical for people who engage in conversation to take turns at speaking. Usually only one person speaks at a time; when more than one person wants to talk at the same, one of them usually stops until the other person(s) has/have finished. Thus the turn is considered the basic unit of conversation.
     Each turn has a completion point, also know as the transition relevance place, at which the right to speak may be relayed to the next speaker. The next speaker may either be selected by the previous speaker or self-selected. Self-selection may occur when the current speaker chooses to continue to speak at the transition relevance place.  
    Speakers may indicate that their turns are “complete” in various ways. They may pause at the end of a complete phrase or sentence or use certain words or phrases, say a tag question, to encourage other participants to take part in the conversation. Other participants may indicate that they want to take the speaking turn, also in a number of ways. They can make repeated short sounds, or use body language and facial expressions.
    Sometimes they may simply cut in, causing overlapping of their turns and the turn of the current speaker, for example,
    A: Didn’t  you 〔know wh-
    B: 〔But he must’ve been there by two
    A: Yes, but you knew where he was going.
    (The symbol “〔 ” indicates simultaneous talk.)
  2) Adjacency pairs相邻语对                                                                     
     a sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers. The second utterance is always a response to the first. For example, question-answer, greeting-greeting, offer-acceptance, apology-minimization, complaint-apology, accusation-denial.
  An adjacency pair is a pair of conversational turns by two different speakers such that the production of the first turn (called a first-pair part) makes a response (a second-pair part) of a particular kind relevant. For example, a question, such as "what's your name?", requires the addressee to provide an answer in the next conversational turn. A failure to give an immediate response is noticeable and accountable.
Many actions in conversation are accomplished through adjacency pair sequences, for example:
    offer-acceptance/rejection
    greeting-greeting
    complaint-excuse/remedy
    request-acceptance/denial
Sometimes, an adjacency pair may be embedded into another adjacency pair, like this,
      Son: Can I watch TV, Dad?
      Father: Have you finished your homework?
      Son: No.
      Father: Then you can’t.
      In this example, the father delays his answer to his son’s question until he has checked if the necessary condition exists.  
Given the limit of human memory, the number of embedded pairs cannot be infinite. Three or four embedded pairs may be common. e.g
      A: Could you lend me a few bucks?
  B: What for?
  A: I need to take a trip to San Francisco to see my girlfriend.
      B: How much do you want?
      A: Well … uh … 50 dollars is ok.
    B: When are you gonna return?
A: Next Monday.
    B: All right. Wait for me. I’ll be right back.
    3) Preferred second parts 优先结构                                                                 
      An adjacency pair may have different second parts. For instance, a question may not be followed by a direct answer, but by another question, a partial answer, a statement of ignorance, or a denial of the relevance of the question. An invitation may either be followed by acceptance or refusal. However, some second parts are preferred and some are dispreferred.  
4) Pre-sequence前序列
  Certain speech acts performed in conversation, such as invitation, request and announcement, are usually preceded by what is called pre-sequences. Pre-sequence refers to the specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. The following is a pre-invitaion:
          A: Are you free tonight?
       B: Yeah, why?
          A: Come over to my birthday party.
  B shows that he knows it is a pre-invitation by asking “why”.
The next example is a pre-request:
      A: Do you have some hot chocolate?
      B: Mhm.
      A: Can I have hot chocolate with  whipped cream?
      B: Sure.
Also common are pre-announcements, for example,
      A: I forgot to tell you the two best things that happened to me today.
      B: Yeah? What were they?
      A: I got a B+ on my math test … and I got an athletic award.
帅呆 发表于 10-10-4 20:46:01 | 显示全部楼层
摔打啊
fayefaye2008 发表于 10-10-5 14:26:18 | 显示全部楼层
谢谢呢,正在需要
wo75353921 发表于 10-10-5 23:13:00 | 显示全部楼层
谢谢啦。
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