希望这些东西尽其所用，对些许人有些作用，就够本了。资料不全，是朋友转发 给我的，与大家共享。以后有机会再补充完整。
- Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind语言的心理过程
- 6.1 Introduction 绪言
- 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说，语言是思维的镜子。
- 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 语言是人类指挥的结晶，通过意志和意识觉察布道的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。
- 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written)“准确的”心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介（口头的或书面的）进行的语言储存，理解，产生和习得过程的研究。
- 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。
- 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language.心理语言学和语言心理学的区别：
- (1). It is perhaps useful to distinguish psycholinguistics from the psychology of language, which deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication ,which includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题；而且从交际心理学角度看，它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非语言交际。
- (2) A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves cognltive psycholinguists as opposed to experimental psycholingusists. The former are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind, whereas the latter are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to particular word.在心理语言学内部，一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作“认知心理语言学家”，以与“实验心理语言学家”相对。前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论，后者则更关心经验主义的事实比如对一个特定的单词的反应速度。
- 6. psycholinguistics:心理语言学 is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).
- 6.1.1 Evidence 论据
- 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 语言学家赞同从共时言语描写中汲取论据；而心理学家则更倾向于实验研究。
- 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphastic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 心理语言学的研究对象一方面是正常的成人和儿童，另一方面是有语言障碍的失语症人群。关于失语症患者的一个基本假设是：语言能力某方面的缺失，可能会引导我们发现大脑中拿部分独立于其他部分而起作用。
- 6.1.2 Current issues 近期主题
- 1. The human language system is likely to be “modular”, in the sense of being constituted out of a number of separate but interacting components. 人类语言系统可能是“模块化”的，因为它由一些相互独立并且相互作用的部分组成。
- 2. modular模块:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.
- 3. encapsulation 分隔
- 4. the relationship between structure and process 结构和过程之间的关系
- It is generally agreed that the mind is likely to contain certain linguistic structures which are utilized in the course of various “processes”, such as comprehending or producing speech. Some researches have argued that structures and processes are linked only indirectly, others that the connection is close one. This debate is often a human “grammar”, and the extent to which the former has psychological reality.普遍认为，思维中可能容纳了一些确定的语言结构以用于各种“过程”----如理解或产生言语的过程。一部分研究者坚持结构和过程只有间接联系，另一部分则认为该联系是紧密的。对着仪分歧人们经常用语言学家的语法和普通人的“语法”两者间的关系来形容；并且从这个角度上说，前者具有心理现实性。
- 5．psycholinguistic reality心理语言现实: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.
- 6. The three major strands of psycholinguistic research are the comprehension, production, and acquisition language.心理语言学研究的三个主要分支是语言理解，语言产生和语言习得。
- language perception语言感知---:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.
- .language comprehension语言理解: ----one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.
- .language production语言产生:----- a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.
- (1)How do people use their knowledge of language, and how do they understand what they hear or read?人们如何运用他们的语言知识，如何弄懂他们所听到或谈到的？
- (2). How do they produce message that others can understand in turn?人们如何生产出他人作为接受者所能理解的信息？
- (3). How language is represented in the mind and how language is acquired?语言在思维中如何表现、它是怎样习得的？
- 6.2 Language Comprension 语言理解
- 1. Most of psycholinguistic research and theories are concerned with the comprehension of text, but the assumption is that they are also relevant to speech comprehension.大多数心理语言学的研究和理论关注于语篇的理解，但其前提是它们也和言语理解相关。
- Text Comprension 语篇理解
- 6.2.1 Word recognition 词语识别
- 1. An initial step in understanding any message is the recognition of words.理解任何信息的初始步骤都是词语的识别。
- 2. cohort theory集群理论-------: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.
- cohort theory: it refers to hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.假设自动的词语识别以一组词的形成开始：人们首先感知首音，然后一个接着一个；随着接受的音增多，词语的集群数下降。
- 3. One of the most important factors that effects word recognition is how frequently the word is used in a given context. 影响词语识别的最重要的因素之一是词语在已知语篇或语境中的出现频率。
- frequency effect-----频率效应: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the language.频率效应描述了这种附加的效益：一个单词的识别要归因于它在语言中更频繁的使用。
- 4．Recency effects近期效应-----describe the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.近期效应描述的附加效益是：单词的识别归因于它在语篇或语境中的重复出现。
- 5. Another factor that is involved in word recognition is Context.词语识别涉及的另一个因素是语境。
- 6. Semantic association network语义关联网络-----represents the relationships between various semantically related words. Word recognition is thought to be faster when other members of the association network are provided in the discourse.该网络表现了各种语义相关的词之间的关系。当话语提供了关联网络中的其他成员时，词语识别会更快。
- 6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义
- 1. lexical ambiguity:词汇歧义-------ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.
- bug (臭虫；窃听器) ； rose（玫瑰；rise的过去式）
- 2. There are two main theories:
- (1). All the meanings assocatied with the word are accessed, and (2) only one meaning is accessed initially. 主要有两种理论：搜索该词所有意义；开始只考虑其中一个意义。
- 3. e.g. :
- a. After taking the right turn at the intersection….在路口右转之后；在路口沿正确的方向转弯之后
- “right” is ambiguous: correct vs. rightward
- b. After taking the left turn at the intersection…在路口左转之后 “left” is unambiguous
- 6.2.3 Syntactic processing句法过程
- 1. Once a word has been dentified , it is used to construct a syntactic structure.单词一经识别就用来构建句法结构。
- 2. As always, there are cinokucatuibs due to the ambiguity of individual words and to the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases. Sometimes there is no way to determine which structure and meaning a sentence has.经常地，由于单个词语有歧义，或者词组成短语有多种可能方式，这一过程变得复杂，有时甚至无法确定句子的结构和意义。
- e.g. The cop saw the spy with the binoculars. “with the binoculars” is ambiguity
- (1) the cop employed binoculars in order to see the spy.警察用双筒望远镜观察间谍。
- (2).it specifies “the spy has binoculars”. 警察看到了带有双筒望远镜的间谍。
- 3. Some ambiguities are due to the ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence.有些歧义归因于句中单词兼属不同范畴。
- e.g. the desert trains trains (培训；列车)
- the desert trains man to be hardly. 沙漠使人坚韧。
- The desert trains seldom run on time.沙漠列车从不准时。
- 4. One interesting phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences is called the “garden path”.一个与这种歧义句相关的有趣现象叫做“花园小径。“
- Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turns out to be incorrect. Some times people never figure it out. They have been “led up the garden path”, fooled into thinking the sentence has a different structure than it has. Reduced relative clauses quite frequently cause this feeling of having been garden-pathed.花园小径句就是那些实际解释不同于我们一开始所想结构的句子。如果证明开始的选择是错误的，就要花相当长的一段时间来找出另外一种结构。有时甚至永远也找不出来，他们被“引到花园小径中去“了，被”骗“去思索句子的另外一种结构，而非其表面上显示的。降级关系从句经常使人有这种走入花园小径的感觉。
- e.g. “The horse raced past the barn fell.” Means “the horse that was raced past the barn fell.”比赛跨越障碍的马摔倒了。
- 5. the minimal attachment theory 最小接触理论-------It would be inefficient for people to assume all these infinite structures until they get some positive evidence for one of them. And if they arbitrarily chosse one of the possibilities, they are most likely to choose the simplest. The idea is that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences. This is called the minimal attachment theory.如果人们分析所有这些无穷的可能直到发现了确切证据能支持其中一种，效率就将非常低。而如果是从所有可能性中任选一种的话，多数可能选择最简单的。也就是说，人们解释句子结构时，一开始构建的是最简（或者说最小复杂性）句法结构，这种观点叫做最少接触理论。
- 6.2.4 Semantics and sentence memroy 语义学和句子记忆
- assimilation theory同化理论------: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.
- 6.2.5 Basic processes in reading 阅读的基础过程
- 1. Eye movement 眼部移动
- 2. The perceptual span 感知时距------which is the range of letters from which useful information is extracted. 即能够提取到有用信息的字母范围。
- 3. The immediacy assumption 即时假定
- immediate assumption即时假定:------- the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.读者应该每遇到一个单词就马上展开所需过程来理解该单词及它与句中之前单词的关系。
- e.g. Tomorrow was the annual, one-day fishing context and fisherment would invade the place. Some of the best bass guitaristis in the country would come to this spot.明天是纪念日，有一天的捕鱼竞赛，渔夫们将拥入此地。乡村里一些最好的低音吉他演奏者也将到场。
- Bass (颅鱼；音调低的)
- 6.3 Discourse/ text interpretations话语/语篇解释
- 1. Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.话语作为语境，影响句子和词平面的解释，给可能有歧义的词或短语指示一个确定的解释方向。
- 2. context effect语境效应-----: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.
- 3. When we are trying to understand a sentence, we often make use of information that is not contained directly within the sentence itself. This is known as contextual information, and we can distinguish between two kinds of context: general and specific.人们尝试理解句子时，经常会利用一些句子本身并不直接包含的信息，叫做语境信息；我们可以区分两种语境：常识的和特殊的。
- General context effects occur when our general knowledge about the world influences language comprehension. 常识语境效应发生在我们对世界的常识影响语言理解时；
- Specific context effects involve information obtained from earlier parts of a discourse.特殊语境效应则需要甬道从话语前面部分获取的信息。
- 4. General context effects occur all the time, because a crucial aspect of language comprehension involves making use of any relevant general knowledge that we possess.常识语境效应随时都在发生，因为语言理解的一个极重要的方面就是要利用我们拥有的任何相关常识。
- 6.3.1 Schemata and inference drawing 图式和推论
- 1. schemata in text语篇图式: packets of stored knowledge in language processing存储知识的信息包
- 2. The features of schemata are as follows:
- (1). Schemata can vary considerably in the information they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.图式可以随其存储信息发生相当大的改变，从非常简单到非常复杂。
- (2). Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition to a rather general restaurant schema orscript, we probably also have more specific restaurant schemata for different kinds of restaurant(e.g. fast-food places, up-market French restaurants, and so so.) 图式往往是分等级地组织起来的：如，在很普通的餐馆图式或底本之外，我们可能也有不同种类的特殊餐馆图式（像快餐店，高档法国餐馆等等。）
- (3). Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptually dirven way to facilitate interpretation of environmental stimuli..图式以一种自上而下或概念驱动的方式促进对环境刺激物的解释。
- 3. inference in context语篇推论: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.
- 6.3.2 story structure 故事结构
- story structure故事结构-------: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized
- macroproposition:宏观命题---general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.
- macrostructure 宏观结构
- 6.4 Language production 语言产生
- 1. Language production is very definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on.人们说话或者写文章是为了交朋友、影响别人、传递信息等等，在这个意义上，语言产生无疑是一种目标驱动的活动。
- 2. The two forms of language production are speech production and writing.语言产生的两种形式：言语产生和文字。
- 6.4.1 Speech production 言语产生
- 1. five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence: the message-level representation; the functional-level representation; the positional-level representation; the phonetic-level representation; the articulatory-level representation五个不同的表达层面：信息层面表达式；功能层面表达式；命题层面表达式；语音层面表达式；发音层面表达式。
- 2. propositions命题:-----whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.
- 3. parsing解析------:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.
- 4. The classic error of this type is the spoonerism (or slip of the tongue), where the initial letter or letters of two words are transposed.属于这种类型的典型错误是首音互换（或叫“舌头打滑”）：两个单词的前个或前几个字母互换了位置。
- 5. Other errors also demonstrate the existence of forward planning. An anticipation error occurs when a word is spoken earlier in the sentence than it should be (e.g. the school is at school). A similar type of error is the exchange error, in which two items within a sentence are swapped. (e.g. This is the happiest life of my day.)其他错误也说明了“预先计划”的存在。当一个单词先于它应该出现的位置出现在句中时，预期错误就产生了。一种相似的错误类型是交换错误，即句中两个词项交换了位置。
- 6. Given this sequence, it would be possible for the grammatical structure of a spoken sentence to be correct even though some of the words were incorrectly positioned. Precisely this is found withmorpheme-exchange errors, in which the roots or basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (e.g. He has already trunked two packs.)说出的句子语法结构正确而一些词位置错误。这一现象准确地说是词素交换错误，其中语法结构没变而两个单词的词根或基础形式交换了位置。（例如，trunk与pack互换了位置。）
- 6.4.2 Written language 书面语
- 1. writing process书面语过程: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.
- 2. According to Hayes and Flower , writing essentially consisits of three inter-related processes: the planning process; the sentence generation process; the revison process.文字处理本质上由三个相互关联的过程组成：计划过程；句子生成过程；修改过程。
- 3. In general, the processes operate in the order: planning, sentence generation, and revision.这些过程按如下顺序工作：计划，句子生成，修改。
- 4. Strategic knowledge学习策略知识------which is knowledge of the metods used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherhent and well-organized. 它是关于构建写作计划所用方法的知识，使用那些方法可以使写作计划更加连贯，富于组织性。
- 4. Knowledge-telling strategy知识讲述策略------where they simply wirte down everything they can think of that is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way.即不用任何方式组织信息，只是写出所有能想到的与主题相关的东西。
- 5. Knowledge-transforming strategy 知识转换策略
- Exercises:
- Here are some more examples of garden path sentence. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is ?下面是一些“花园小径”句，请指出其结构。
- 1. The boat floated downstream sank. The boat/ which was floated downstream / sank.那只顺流而下的船沉了。
- 2. While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap. While Mary was mending / the sock fell off her lap. 玛丽正在缝补时，短袜从她膝盖上滑了下来。
- 3. The daughter of the king’s son admires himself. (The daughter of the king)’s son admires himself.国王女儿的儿子崇拜他自己。
- 4. The florist sent the flowers was pleased. The florist / whom was sent the flowers /was pleased.收到鲜花的种花人非常高兴。
- 5. The cotton cloting is made from grows in Mississippi. The cotton /which clothing is made from / grows in Mississippi.纺织用棉产于密西西比。
- 6. They told the boy that the girl met the story. They told the boy / that
- Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind语言的心理过程
- 6.1 Introduction 绪言
- 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说，语言是思维的镜子。
- 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 语言是人类指挥的结晶，通过意志和意识觉察布道的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。
- 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written)“准确的”心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介（口头的或书面的）进行的语言储存，理解，产生和习得过程的研究。
- 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。
- 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language.心理语言学和语言心理学的区别：
- (1). It is perhaps useful to distinguish psycholinguistics from the psychology of language, which deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication ,which includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题；而且从交际心理学角度看，它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非语言交际。
- (2) A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves cognltive psycholinguists as opposed to experimental psycholingusists. The former are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind, whereas the latter are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to particular word.在心理语言学内部，一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作“认知心理语言学家”，以与“实验心理语言学家”相对。前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论，后者则更关心经验主义的事实比如对一个特定的单词的反应速度。
- 6. psycholinguistics:心理语言学 is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).
- 6.1.1 Evidence 论据
- 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 语言学家赞同从共时言语描写中汲取论据；而心理学家则更倾向于实验研究。
- 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphastic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 心理语言学的研究对象一方面是正常的成人和儿童，另一方面是有语言障碍的失语症人群。关于失语症患者的一个基本假设是：语言能力某方面的缺失，可能会引导我们发现大脑中拿部分独立于其他部分而起作用。
- 6.1.2 Current issues 近期主题
- 1. The human language system is likely to be “modular”, in the sense of being constituted out of a number of separate but interacting components. 人类语言系统可能是“模块化”的，因为它由一些相互独立并且相互作用的部分组成。
- 2. modular模块:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.
- 3. encapsulation 分隔
- 4. the relationship between structure and process 结构和过程之间的关系
- It is generally agreed that the mind is likely to contain certain linguistic structures which are utilized in the course of various “processes”, such as comprehending or producing speech. Some researches have argued that structures and processes are linked only indirectly, others that the connection is close one. This debate is often a human “grammar”, and the extent to which the former has psychological reality.普遍认为，思维中可能容纳了一些确定的语言结构以用于各种“过程”----如理解或产生言语的过程。一部分研究者坚持结构和过程只有间接联系，另一部分则认为该联系是紧密的。对着仪分歧人们经常用语言学家的语法和普通人的“语法”两者间的关系来形容；并且从这个角度上说，前者具有心理现实性。
- 5．psycholinguistic reality心理语言现实: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.
- 6. The three major strands of psycholinguistic research are the comprehension, production, and acquisition language.心理语言学研究的三个主要分支是语言理解，语言产生和语言习得。
- language perception语言感知---:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.
- .language comprehension语言理解: ----one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.
- .language production语言产生:----- a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.
- (1)How do people use their knowledge of language, and how do they understand what they hear or read?人们如何运用他们的语言知识，如何弄懂他们所听到或谈到的？
- (2). How do they produce message that others can understand in turn?人们如何生产出他人作为接受者所能理解的信息？
- (3). How language is represented in the mind and how language is acquired?语言在思维中如何表现、它是怎样习得的？
- 6.2 Language Comprension 语言理解
- 1. Most of psycholinguistic research and theories are concerned with the comprehension of text, but the assumption is that they are also relevant to speech comprehension.大多数心理语言学的研究和理论关注于语篇的理解，但其前提是它们也和言语理解相关。
- Text Comprension 语篇理解
- 6.2.1 Word recognition 词语识别
- 1. An initial step in understanding any message is the recognition of words.理解任何信息的初始步骤都是词语的识别。
- 2. cohort theory集群理论-------: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.
- cohort theory: it refers to hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.假设自动的词语识别以一组词的形成开始：人们首先感知首音，然后一个接着一个；随着接受的音增多，词语的集群数下降。
- 3. One of the most important factors that effects word recognition is how frequently the word is used in a given context. 影响词语识别的最重要的因素之一是词语在已知语篇或语境中的出现频率。
- frequency effect-----频率效应: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the language.频率效应描述了这种附加的效益：一个单词的识别要归因于它在语言中更频繁的使用。
- 4．Recency effects近期效应-----describe the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.近期效应描述的附加效益是：单词的识别归因于它在语篇或语境中的重复出现。
- 5. Another factor that is involved in word recognition is Context.词语识别涉及的另一个因素是语境。
- 6. Semantic association network语义关联网络-----represents the relationships between various semantically related words. Word recognition is thought to be faster when other members of the association network are provided in the discourse.该网络表现了各种语义相关的词之间的关系。当话语提供了关联网络中的其他成员时，词语识别会更快。
- 6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义
- 1. lexical ambiguity:词汇歧义-------ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.
- bug (臭虫；窃听器) ； rose（玫瑰；rise的过去式）
- 2. There are two main theories:
- (1). All the meanings assocatied with the word are accessed, and (2) only one meaning is accessed initially. 主要有两种理论：搜索该词所有意义；开始只考虑其中一个意义。
- 3. e.g. :
- a. After taking the right turn at the intersection….在路口右转之后；在路口沿正确的方向转弯之后
- “right” is ambiguous: correct vs. rightward
- b. After taking the left turn at the intersection…在路口左转之后 “left” is unambiguous
- 6.2.3 Syntactic processing句法过程
- 1. Once a word has been dentified , it is used to construct a syntactic structure.单词一经识别就用来构建句法结构。
- 2. As always, there are cinokucatuibs due to the ambiguity of individual words and to the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases. Sometimes there is no way to determine which structure and meaning a sentence has.经常地，由于单个词语有歧义，或者词组成短语有多种可能方式，这一过程变得复杂，有时甚至无法确定句子的结构和意义。
- e.g. The cop saw the spy with the binoculars. “with the binoculars” is ambiguity
- (1) the cop employed binoculars in order to see the spy.警察用双筒望远镜观察间谍。
- (2).it specifies “the spy has binoculars”. 警察看到了带有双筒望远镜的间谍。
- 3. Some ambiguities are due to the ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence.有些歧义归因于句中单词兼属不同范畴。
- e.g. the desert trains trains (培训；列车)
- the desert trains man to be hardly. 沙漠使人坚韧。
- The desert trains seldom run on time.沙漠列车从不准时。
- 4. One interesting phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences is called the “garden path”.一个与这种歧义句相关的有趣现象叫做“花园小径。“
- Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turns out to be incorrect. Some times people never figure it out. They have been “led up the garden path”, fooled into thinking the sentence has a different structure than it has. Reduced relative clauses quite frequently cause this feeling of having been garden-pathed.花园小径句就是那些实际解释不同于我们一开始所想结构的句子。如果证明开始的选择是错误的，就要花相当长的一段时间来找出另外一种结构。有时甚至永远也找不出来，他们被“引到花园小径中去“了，被”骗“去思索句子的另外一种结构，而非其表面上显示的。降级关系从句经常使人有这种走入花园小径的感觉。
- e.g. “The horse raced past the barn fell.” Means “the horse that was raced past the barn fell.”比赛跨越障碍的马摔倒了。
- 5. the minimal attachment theory 最小接触理论-------It would be inefficient for people to assume all these infinite structures until they get some positive evidence for one of them. And if they arbitrarily chosse one of the possibilities, they are most likely to choose the simplest. The idea is that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences. This is called the minimal attachment theory.如果人们分析所有这些无穷的可能直到发现了确切证据能支持其中一种，效率就将非常低。而如果是从所有可能性中任选一种的话，多数可能选择最简单的。也就是说，人们解释句子结构时，一开始构建的是最简（或者说最小复杂性）句法结构，这种观点叫做最少接触理论。
- 6.2.4 Semantics and sentence memroy 语义学和句子记忆
- assimilation theory同化理论------: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.
- 6.2.5 Basic processes in reading 阅读的基础过程
- 1. Eye movement 眼部移动
- 2. The perceptual span 感知时距------which is the range of letters from which useful information is extracted. 即能够提取到有用信息的字母范围。
- 3. The immediacy assumption 即时假定
- immediate assumption即时假定:------- the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.读者应该每遇到一个单词就马上展开所需过程来理解该单词及它与句中之前单词的关系。
- e.g. Tomorrow was the annual, one-day fishing context and fisherment would invade the place. Some of the best bass guitaristis in the country would come to this spot.明天是纪念日，有一天的捕鱼竞赛，渔夫们将拥入此地。乡村里一些最好的低音吉他演奏者也将到场。
- Bass (颅鱼；音调低的)
- 6.3 Discourse/ text interpretations话语/语篇解释
- 1. Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.话语作为语境，影响句子和词平面的解释，给可能有歧义的词或短语指示一个确定的解释方向。
- 2. context effect语境效应-----: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.
- 3. When we are trying to understand a sentence, we often make use of information that is not contained directly within the sentence itself. This is known as contextual information, and we can distinguish between two kinds of context: general and specific.人们尝试理解句子时，经常会利用一些句子本身并不直接包含的信息，叫做语境信息；我们可以区分两种语境：常识的和特殊的。
- General context effects occur when our general knowledge about the world influences language comprehension. 常识语境效应发生在我们对世界的常识影响语言理解时；
- Specific context effects involve information obtained from earlier parts of a discourse.特殊语境效应则需要甬道从话语前面部分获取的信息。
- 4. General context effects occur all the time, because a crucial aspect of language comprehension involves making use of any relevant general knowledge that we possess.常识语境效应随时都在发生，因为语言理解的一个极重要的方面就是要利用我们拥有的任何相关常识。
- 6.3.1 Schemata and inference drawing 图式和推论
- 1. schemata in text语篇图式: packets of stored knowledge in language processing存储知识的信息包
- 2. The features of schemata are as follows:
- (1). Schemata can vary considerably in the information they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.图式可以随其存储信息发生相当大的改变，从非常简单到非常复杂。
- (2). Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition to a rather general restaurant schema orscript, we probably also have more specific restaurant schemata for different kinds of restaurant(e.g. fast-food places, up-market French restaurants, and so so.) 图式往往是分等级地组织起来的：如，在很普通的餐馆图式或底本之外，我们可能也有不同种类的特殊餐馆图式（像快餐店，高档法国餐馆等等。）
- (3). Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptually dirven way to facilitate interpretation of environmental stimuli..图式以一种自上而下或概念驱动的方式促进对环境刺激物的解释。
- 3. inference in context语篇推论: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.
- 6.3.2 story structure 故事结构
- story structure故事结构-------: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized
- macroproposition:宏观命题---general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.
- macrostructure 宏观结构
- 6.4 Language production 语言产生
- 1. Language production is very definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on.人们说话或者写文章是为了交朋友、影响别人、传递信息等等，在这个意义上，语言产生无疑是一种目标驱动的活动。
- 2. The two forms of language production are speech production and writing.语言产生的两种形式：言语产生和文字。
- 6.4.1 Speech production 言语产生
- 1. five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence: the message-level representation; the functional-level representation; the positional-level representation; the phonetic-level representation; the articulatory-level representation五个不同的表达层面：信息层面表达式；功能层面表达式；命题层面表达式；语音层面表达式；发音层面表达式。
- 2. propositions命题:-----whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.
- 3. parsing解析------:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.
- 4. The classic error of this type is the spoonerism (or slip of the tongue), where the initial letter or letters of two words are transposed.属于这种类型的典型错误是首音互换（或叫“舌头打滑”）：两个单词的前个或前几个字母互换了位置。
- 5. Other errors also demonstrate the existence of forward planning. An anticipation error occurs when a word is spoken earlier in the sentence than it should be (e.g. the school is at school). A similar type of error is the exchange error, in which two items within a sentence are swapped. (e.g. This is the happiest life of my day.)其他错误也说明了“预先计划”的存在。当一个单词先于它应该出现的位置出现在句中时，预期错误就产生了。一种相似的错误类型是交换错误，即句中两个词项交换了位置。
- 6. Given this sequence, it would be possible for the grammatical structure of a spoken sentence to be correct even though some of the words were incorrectly positioned. Precisely this is found withmorpheme-exchange errors, in which the roots or basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (e.g. He has already trunked two packs.)说出的句子语法结构正确而一些词位置错误。这一现象准确地说是词素交换错误，其中语法结构没变而两个单词的词根或基础形式交换了位置。（例如，trunk与pack互换了位置。）
- 6.4.2 Written language 书面语
- 1. writing process书面语过程: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.
- 2. According to Hayes and Flower , writing essentially consisits of three inter-related processes: the planning process; the sentence generation process; the revison process.文字处理本质上由三个相互关联的过程组成：计划过程；句子生成过程；修改过程。
- 3. In general, the processes operate in the order: planning, sentence generation, and revision.这些过程按如下顺序工作：计划，句子生成，修改。
- 4. Strategic knowledge学习策略知识------which is knowledge of the metods used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherhent and well-organized. 它是关于构建写作计划所用方法的知识，使用那些方法可以使写作计划更加连贯，富于组织性。
- 4. Knowledge-telling strategy知识讲述策略------where they simply wirte down everything they can think of that is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way.即不用任何方式组织信息，只是写出所有能想到的与主题相关的东西。
- 5. Knowledge-transforming strategy 知识转换策略
- Exercises:
- Here are some more examples of garden path sentence. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is ?下面是一些“花园小径”句，请指出其结构。
- 1. The boat floated downstream sank. The boat/ which was floated downstream / sank.那只顺流而下的船沉了。
- 2. While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap. While Mary was mending / the sock fell off her lap. 玛丽正在缝补时，短袜从她膝盖上滑了下来。
- 3. The daughter of the king’s son admires himself. (The daughter of the king)’s son admires himself.国王女儿的儿子崇拜他自己。
- 4. The florist sent the flowers was pleased. The florist / whom was sent the flowers /was pleased.收到鲜花的种花人非常高兴。
- 5. The cotton cloting is made from grows in Mississippi. The cotton /which clothing is made from / grows in Mississippi.纺织用棉产于密西西比。
- 6. They told the boy that the girl met the story. They told the boy / that the girl met/ the story. 他们把故事告诉了女孩遇到的那个男孩。
- The examples of cohort theory:
- Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim; an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream;
- See Mable----seem able; well fare----welfare lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight
- Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn
- the girl met/ the story. 他们把故事告诉了女孩遇到的那个男孩。
- The examples of cohort theory:
- Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim; an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream;
- See Mable----seem able; well fare----welfare lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight
- Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn
[ 本帖最后由 yl120872063b 于 2010-1-22 16:32 编辑 ] |
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