外交学———专业课复习纲要！ - 国际关系学院国政系朱素梅教授

外交的种类及其定义
作者：朱素梅教授  时间：2005年04月24日


经济外交
经济外交有两种含义：其一是指主权国家通过外交手段促进对外贸易，增进国家的经济利益。其二是指利用经济手段达到某种政治和外交上的目的。
日本的经济外交
1、战后初的经济外交—重返国际社会。1957年，日本政府在其《外交蓝皮书》中首次提出“经济外交”的口号。力争获最惠国待遇。1955年加入关贸总协定。“赔偿外交”。
2、经济高速增长期。“民族主义的经
济外交”。
3、成为经济大国后的“经济摩擦外交”。
4、走向政治大国的经济外交。
日本的政府开发援助（ODA）
ODA是经济外交的载体。
1989年以来，日本的ODA金额持续居世界各援助国之首。
1991年，日本明确提出其ODA的目的和理念，即“为建立确保日本的全面安全之国际秩序。在这一总方针下又具体提出了”ODA四原则“，即：军事支出动向；核武器及生化武器状况；武器进出口动向；民主化状况。
日本的ODA分为三大类：无偿援助；日元贷款；技术合作。
经济外交的表现方式
1、经济合作
2、经济援助
3、经济制裁
4、第三世界的发展外交
5、国际协调与国际经济法
公共外交（Public Diplomacy)
定义：“超出传统外交范围以外的一个方面的国际关系，其中包括政府对他国公众舆论的培植；在政府范围以外，一个国家的各种集团和利益与另一个国家的各种集团和利益之间的相互影响；那些从事信息交流工作的人们相互之间的信息交流......;以及上述这些行为对于制订政策和处理对外事务所产生的效果。”
美国公共外交的机构
美国新闻署（USIA）：VOA
Radio Free Europe
Radio Liberty
Radio and TV Marti'
环境外交(Enviromental diplomacy)
定义：以主权国家为主体，通过正式代表国家的机构和人员的官方行为，运用谈判、交涉等外交方式，处理和调整环境领域国际关系的一切活动。，其主要内容包括：寻求加强国际环境合作的方式；国际环境立法谈判；国际环境条约的履行；处理环境纠纷和冲突等。环境外交的另一层含义是，利用环境保护问题实现特定的政治目的或其他战略意图。
预防性外交（Preventive diplopacy）
  Actions or institutions that are used to keep the political disputes that arise between or within nations from escalating into armed force.These efforts are needed when and where existing international relations or national politics appear unable to manage tentions without violence erupting.They come into play before a point of confrontation,sustained violence,or military action is reached.

什么是外交学?
作者：朱素梅教授  时间：2005年04月24日


广义外交
双边外交、秘密外交、强权外交、卖国外交、多边外交、全方位外交、不结盟外交、经济外交、资源外交、石油外交、金元外交、核外交、文化外交、军事外交、科技外交、体育外交、乒乓外交、民间外交、会议外交、走廊外交、议会外交、公共外交、务实外交、人权外交、预防性外交、地震外交、档案外交、桑拿外交、足球外交、篮球外交、                 
▲
                 
   Definition of diplomacy                           
▲ the conduct of foreign policy;
▲ the apparatus for managing international relations, especially professional Diplomatic Services;
▲ the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the governments of independent states;
▲ the management of international relations by negotiations; the method by which these relations are adjusted and managed by ambassadors and envoys; the business or art of
the diplomatist;
▲the conduct of international relations by  negotiation rather than by force, propaganda, or  recourse to law, and by other peaceful means (such
as gathering information or engendering goodwill) which are either directly or indirectly designed to promote negotiation;it is a professional     activity,though non-professionals now play an important part in it.
▲ 外交是独立国家对外行使主权的官方行为，是一国维护本国利益及实现其对外政策的重要手段；外交采用和平方式，主要是谈判和不同形式的对话，包括参加国际组织和会议,其执行者是正式代表国家的人和机构，包括国家首脑以多种方式的直接参与；外交是和平处理国家关系的科学、
艺术和技巧。
           参考书目
1、《外交外事知识和技能》第一、二章。
                        黄金祺著
2、《Diplomacy Without Diplomats?>
               Sept/Oct 1997
  To begin with, it was the French, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, who were chiefly responsible for cleaning up and professionalising the Italian inheritance and giving us the system which we have today.  secondly,the most important writers on diplomacy were French,notably Francois de Callieres, described as the first writer to move the discussion of diplomacy away from jurisprudence and homilies on the ideal ambassador towards considerations of political reality. Thirdly, the French language itself had replaced Latin as the accepted medium through which different states conducted their business.Fourthly, if not self-evidently the best diplomatic service in Europe, the French service was certainly the most extensive.
An ambassador is an honest man, sent to lie abroad for the good of his country.
  Richelieu was the father of the modern state system. He promulgated the concept of raison d\'etat and practiced it relentlessly for the benefit of his country. Under his auspices, raison d\'etat replaced the medieval concept of universal moral values as the operating principle of French policy.
  In an age still dominated by religious zeal and ideological fanaticism, a dispassionate
foreign policy free of moral imperatives stood out like a snow-coverd Alp in the desert. Richelieu\'s objective was to end what he considered the encirclement of France, to exhaust the Habsburgs, and to prevent the emergence of a major power on the borders of France-especially the German border. His only criterion in making alliances was that they served France\'interests,and this he did first with the Protestant states and,later, even with the Muslim Ottoman Empire. In order to exhaust the belligerents and to prolong the war, Richelieu subsidized the enemies of his enemies,bribed,fomented insurrections,and mobilized an extraordinary array of dynastic and legal arguments. He succeeded so well that the war that had begun in 1618 dragged on  decade after decade until, finally, history found no more appropriate name for it than its duration-the Thirty Years\' War.
1.the prime importance of Europe
2.the leading influence of the Great Powers,
which had wider interests , \'more money
and more guns\';
3.the common responsibility of the Great
Powers for the conduct of the small
powers, including the preservation of  
peace between them;
4.the existence in every European country
of a professional diplomatic service on a
more or less identical model;
5.the rule that sound negotiation must be
continuous and confidencial.
Forms of Summitry  (Elmer Plischke)
making and enunciating policy;
communicating personally with foreign leaders;
commissioning personal representatives or special envoys;
receiving visiting summit leaders;
undertaking such visits and tours abroad;
participating in informal meetings and formal conferences.
         Summitry
What are the diplomatic purposes served by the summits?
1.Promoting friendly relations;
2.Clarifing intentions;
3.information gathering;
4.consular work (principally export
promotion and interceding on behalf of
detained nationals);
5.Negotiation.
Three kinds of summitry:
1.Serial summits
2.Ad hoc summits (including \"working funeral\")
3.The high-level \"exchange of views\"
A working funeral is of special diplomatic significance if it is the funeral of an incumbent head of government, since the funeral is almost certain to be the first occasion for foreign friends to confirm that the new leadership remains wedded to their relationship and for foreign rivals to explore the possibility of a change of heart. Warsaw Pact leaders always attended the funerals of leaders of the Soviet Union for the former purpose, while Western leaders attended them for the latter, at least in the 1980s.   
1.
        Part Three   By G.R.Berridge      
2.
        Sept/Oct 1994

Definition of diplomacy
作者：朱素梅  时间：2005年04月24日


Chief characteristics of the \'Old Diplomacy\'
1.the prime importance of Europe;
2.the leading influence of the Great Powers, which had wider interests, \'more money and more guns\';
3.the common responsibility of the Great Powers for the conduct of the small powers, including the preservation of peace between them;
4.the existence in every European country of a professional diplomatic service on a more or less   identical model;
5.the rule that sound negotiation must be continuous and confidential.  
Definition of diplomacy
▲ the conduct of foreign policy;
▲ the apparatus for managing international relations, especially professional Diplomatic Services;
▲ the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the  governments of independent states;
▲ the management of international relations by negotiations; the method by which these relations  are adjusted and managed by ambassadors and envoys; the business or art of the diplomatist;
▲ the conduct of international relations by negotiation rather than by force, propaganda, or recourse to law, and by other peaceful means (such as gathering
information or engendering goodwill) which are either directly or indirectly designed to promote negotiation;it is a professional activity,though non-professionals now play an important part in it.
▲ 外交是独立国家对外行使主权的官方行为，是一国维护本国利益及实现其对外政策的重要手段；外交采用和平方式，主要是谈判和不同形式的对话，包括参加国际组织和会议，其执行者是正式代表国家的人和机构，包括国家首脑以多种方式的直接参与；外交是和平处理国家关系的科学、艺术和技巧。

Public diplomacy and propaganda 作者：朱素梅 时间：2005年04月24日 What is Public Diplomacy? Definitions Origins of the term Public diplomacy and propaganda Public and traditional diplomacy What public diplomacy is and is not \"PUBLIC DIPLOMACY refers to government-sponsored programs intended to inform or influence public opinion in other countries; its chief instruments are publications, motion pictures, cultural exchanges, radio and television.\" (U.S. Department of State, Dictionary of International Relations Terms, 1987, p. 85) USIA which was in the business of public diplomacy for more than forty years, defined PUBLIC DIPLOMACY as follows: Public diplomacy seeks to promote the national interest and the national security of the United States through understanding, informing, and influencing foreign publics and broadening dialogue between American citizens and institutions and their counterparts abroad. Origins of the term Public Diplomacy \"According to a Library of Congress study of U.S. international and cultural programs and activities prepared for the Committee on Foreign Relations of the U.S. Senate, the term `public diplomacy\' was first used in 1965 by Dean Edmund Gullion of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University. It was created with the establishment at Fletcher of the Edward R. Murrow Center for Public Diplomacy.\" The Murrow Center, in one of its earlier brochures, described public diplomacy as follows: \"Public diplomacy . . . deals with the influence of public attitudes on the formation and execution of foreign policies. It encompasses dimensions of international relations beyond traditional diplomacy; the cultivation by governments of public opinion in other countries; the interaction of private groups and interests in one country with those of another; the reporting of foreign affairs and its impact on policy; communication between those whose job is communication, as between diplomats and foreign correspondents; and the processes of inter-cultural communications. \"Central to public diplomacy is the transnational flow of information and ideas.\" [top] Public diplomacy and propaganda To this day views differ as to whether or not \"public diplomacy\" and \"propaganda\" are similar. Two examples: In 1955, Oren Stephens, author of Facts to a Candid World: America\'s Overseas Information Program, called such programs (now known as \"public diplomacy\"), \"propaganda.\" He referred to the Declaration of Independence as being \"first and foremost a propaganda tract.\" In 1961, Wilson Dizard, in the first book to be written specifically about USIA, which was then about eight years old, wrote: The United States has been in the international propaganda business, off and on, for a long time . . . propaganda played a crucial role in the war of independence.\" In the years following these earlier views, some U.S. Government officials and others contended that U.S. public diplomacy programs are not propaganda. Others still contend, however, that since propaganda can be based on fact, public diplomacy can be equated with propaganda i.e. ideas, information, or other material disseminated to win people over to a given doctrine. If based on falsehoods and untruths, while still propaganda, it is best described as \"disinformation.\" USIA officials always contended that their programs dealt with the known facts; to do otherwise would be counterproductive as their reliability would be questioned. Edward R. Murrow, in May 1963, as the Director of USIA at the time, in testimony before a Congressional Committee, summed up this view best when he said: \"American traditions and the American ethic require us to be truthful, but the most important reason is that truth is the best propaganda and lies are the worst. To be persuasive we must be believable; to be believable we must be credible; to be credible we must be truthful. It is as simple as that.\" [top] Public diplomacy and traditional diplomacy Public diplomacy differs from traditional diplomacy in that public diplomacy deals not only with governments but primarily with non-governmental individuals and organizations. Furthermore, public diplomacy activities often present many differing views as represented by private American individuals and organizations in addition to official U.S. Government views. Traditional diplomacy actively engages one government with another government. In traditional diplomacy, U.S. Embassy officials represent the U.S. Government in a host country primarily by maintaining relations and conducting official USG business with the officials of the host government whereas public diplomacy primarily engages many diverse non-government elements of a society.

Diplomatic Institutions and Personnel
作者：朱素梅  时间：2005年04月24日


Topic 7  Diplomatic Institutions and Personnel
（外交机关和外交代表）
外交机关是国家为实现其外交政策而进行外交活动的国家机关的总称。分国内外交机关和驻国外的外交机关。国内外交机关包括国家元首、政府和政府中主管外交工作的外交部。驻国外的外交机关分常驻和临时的两种。常驻的有驻外使馆和驻国际组织的使团。临时的可分为政治性使团和礼节性使团两类。
   第一节  外交决策机关
外交决策权在一国最高领导
以美国为例
美国总统的外交权有：1、外交承认权；2、缔结条约权；3、任免权；4、战争权。
美国国会的外交权有：1、立法权；2、财权；3、人事和条约批准权；4、战争权。
    第二节  专职外交执行机关
一、外交部和外交部长的职责
二、外交部的组成
中华人民共和国外交部
外交部 > 组织机构
    办公厅 政策研究室 亚洲司 西亚北非司 非洲司 东欧中亚司 西欧司 北美大洋洲司 拉丁美洲司 国际司  军控司 条约法律司 新闻司 礼宾司 领事司 港澳台司 翻译室 外事管理司 干部司 离退休干部局    行政司 财务司 档案馆 机关党委 监察局 国外工作局 服务局
中国外交部的机构设置分四大类：
1、地区司 2、业务司 3、行政机构
4、附属机构
1、地区司：亚洲司、西亚北非司、非洲司、欧亚司、西欧司、美大司、
拉美司。
2、业务司：新闻司、礼宾司、条约法律司、国际司、领事司、香港澳门事务办公室、台湾事务办公室、翻译室。
3、行政机构：行政司、财务司、干部司、老干部司、审计司。
4、附属机构：国际问题研究所、世界知识出版社、外交人员服务局、外交学院。
第三节、外交代表机关
一、互设常驻外交代表机关是建交标志
二、外交代表机关当今一般都为大使馆
第四节、外交代表
一、作为使馆馆长的外交代表
  使馆馆长的概念和任务
使馆馆长的等级
（1）向国家元首派遣的大使或教廷   
     大使
（2）向国家元首派遣的公使或教
     公使
（3）向外交部长派遣的代办
注：在教会法规里，大使共分三类
即教廷大使、教皇特别大使和当然
大使。
外交代表在正式场合的位次：
教廷大使
大使，高级专员，教廷公使
特命全权公使
代办
临时代办
公使衔参赞
参赞
一秘、二秘、三秘
随员
武官通常居参赞之后
二、使馆馆长的任命、到任和离任
三、使馆的组成和规模
大使馆一般设有办公室、调研室、领事部、武官处、商务处、文化教育处等
三、外交代表的条件
1、外交官应具备的素质
西方外交手册写道：“一名出色的外交官应当头脑敏捷，有极大的耐心；知道该如何掩饰自己，但又不被斥为骗子；不轻信别人，却能使别人相信自己；谦逊而不武断；能吸引他人，而又不屈服于他人；拥有足够金钱和一位美貌妻子，而却对富贵和女人无动于衷。
哈罗德.尼克尔森认为理想的外交官应具备下列品质：诚恳、守时、冷静、有耐心、好脾气、谦逊、正直、聪明、有学识、有判断力、谨慎、好客、有魅力、勇敢、勤劳。
周恩来对我外交人员提出的十六字方针：站稳立场、掌握政策、熟悉业务、严守纪律。
外交官应具备的素质
诚实、谨慎、机敏、谦虚、外语化、知识化、专业化、交际能力
2、外交官的选拔与培训
A．      外交官的选拔；B 外交官的培训
美国国务院机构设置
国务卿
副国务卿
负责具体事务的副国务卿 -顾问
       —政治事务         -主任
       —经济事务
       —援助与科技事务
       —行政事务
         
       助理国务卿（司长）
      副助理国务卿（副司长）
地区司
—非洲事务
—东亚和太平洋事务
—欧洲和加拿大事务
—美洲事务
—近东和南亚事务
职能司
—领事事务
—经济与商业事务
—人权与人道事务
—情报与研究
—国际通讯与信息政策
—国际麻醉品事务
—国际组织事务
—法律事务
—政治军事事务
—公共事务
—难民计划
1.Secretary of State--Deputy Secretary of State
2.Under Secretary of State--Counselor
3.Assistant Secretary of State
Topic 8  Diplomatic Etiquette
         （外交礼仪）
1、国际礼仪的基本准则
2、姓名与称呼
3、迎送仪式
姓名与称呼
法国人的姓名
戴高乐的全名：夏尔·安德列·约瑟夫·玛丽·戴高乐
俄罗斯人：
列宁的全称：弗拉基米尔·伊里奇·乌里扬诺夫·列宁
阿拉伯人：
沙特前国王：费萨尔·阿卜杜拉·阿齐兹·阿卜杜拉·拉赫曼·沙特
来源：国际关系学院国政系

Summitry
作者：朱素梅 时间：2005年04月24日


Modern Diplomacy
2. Summitry

Forms of Summitry (Elmer Plischke)

making and enunciating policy;
communicating personally with foreign leaders;
commissioning personal representatives or special envoys;
receiving visiting summit leaders;
undertaking such visits and tours abroad;
participating in informal meetings and formal conferences.


What are the diplomatic purposes served by the summits?
1.Promoting friendly relations;
2.Clarifing intentions;
3.information gathering;
4.consular work (principally export
promotion and interceding on behalf of
detained nationals);
5.Negotiation.

Three kinds of summitry:
1.Serial summits
2.Ad hoc summits (including \"working funeral\")
3.The high-level \"exchange of views\"

A working funeral is of special diplomatic significance if it is the funeral of an incumbent head of government, since the funeral is almost certain to be the first occasion for foreign friends to confirm that the new leadership remains wedded to their relationship and for foreign rivals to explore the possibility of a change of heart. Warsaw Pact leaders always attended the funerals of leaders of the Soviet Union for the former purpose, while Western leaders attended them for the latter, at least in the 1980s.


首脑外交的优势与不足：（普利施科）
首先，最高级领导人之间彼此熟识，可面对面阐明各自的国家利益、外交政策、甚至国内困难。一些领导人之间建立了良好的私人关系，这种关系有助于促进正式的国家关系。在关系敌对的国家中，领导人之间的联系有助于澄清各自国家的立场，增加相互信任，消除分歧。
其次，首脑级领导人可以迅速地和直接地做出决定，避免了外交渠道的拖延和曲折。
不足：
首先，人们往往对首脑外交抱有过高的期望。
其次，参与首脑外交的领导人必须忍受新闻界刨根问底之苦。
第三，如外交由一个非职业的生手去处理，就要严重影响国家利益。
1.
Part Three By G.R.Berridge

2.
Sept/Oct 1994


经济外交
经济外交有两种含义：其一是指主权国家通过外交手段促进对外贸易，增进国家的经济利益。其二是指利用经济手段达到某种政治和外交上的目的。

日本的经济外交
1、战后初的经济外交—重返国际社会。1957年，日本政府在其《外交蓝皮书》中首次提出“经济外交”的口号。力争获最惠国待遇。1955年加入关贸总协定。“赔偿外交”。



2、经济高速增长期。“民族主义的经
济外交”。

3、成为经济大国后的“经济摩擦外交”。

4、走向政治大国的经济外交。


日本的政府开发援助（ODA）
ODA是经济外交的载体。
1989年以来，日本的ODA金额持续居世界各援助国之首。
1991年，日本明确提出其ODA的目的和理念，即“为建立确保日本的全面安全之国际秩序。在这一总方针下又具体提出了”ODA四原则“，即：军事支出动向；核武器及生化武器状况；武器进出口动向；民主化状况。
日本的ODA分为三大类：无偿援助；日元贷款；技术合作。


经济外交的表现方式
1、经济合作
2、经济援助
3、经济制裁
4、第三世界的发展外交
5、国际协调与国际经济法



公共外交（Public Diplomacy)
定义：“超出传统外交范围以外的一个方面的国际关系，其中包括政府对他国公众舆论的培植；在政府范围以外，一个国家的各种集团和利益与另一个国家的各种集团和利益之间的相互影响；那些从事信息交流工作的人们相互之间的信息交流......;以及上述这些行为对于制订政策和处理对外事务所产生的效果。”


美国公共外交的机构
美国新闻署（USIA）：VOA
Radio Free Europe
Radio Liberty
Radio and TV Marti\'


环境外交(Enviromental diplomacy)

定义：以主权国家为主体，通过正式代表国家的机构和人员的官方行为，运用谈判、交涉等外交方式，处理和调整环境领域国际关系的一切活动。，其主要内容包括：寻求加强国际环境合作的方式；国际环境立法谈判；国际环境条约的履行；处理环境纠纷和冲突等。环境外交的另一层含义是，利用环境保护问题实现特定的政治目的或其他战略意图。

预防性外交（Preventive diplopacy）
Actions or institutions that are used to keep the political disputes that arise between or within nations from escalating into armed force.These efforts are needed when and where existing international relations or national politics appear unable to manage tentions without violence erupting.They come into play before a point of confrontation,sustained violence,or military action is reached.

来源：国际关系学院国政系

环境外交
作者：朱素梅 时间：2005年04月24日


Nonstate Actors
1. territorial nonstate actors, such as national
liberation movements;
2. nonterritorial transnational organizations,
such as multinational corporations;
3. intergovernmental organizations, such as
NATO or the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

In what ways do nonstate actors affect international politics?
1.introduce an issue onto the international diplomatic agenda;
2.publicize and raise citizen consciousness regarding certain global or regional problems;
3.lobby national governments and international organizations to make decisions favorable to their cause;
4.seek an outcome through direct action, sometimes (though relatively rarely) involving the threat or use of force.



Are nonstate actors in a position to replace the
power of the state?

No, the state still remains the critical actor of
international politics, because
1.only it commands the allegiance of peoples
occupying a defined territory;
2.only it possesses the capabilities to employ the
ultimate threat (war);
3.governments, unlike most transnational
organizations,are concerned with the full range of
welfare and security issues of a population;
4. only governments enjoy sovereignty.

Topic 5 环境外交
1．何谓环境外交？
2．谁是环境外交的参与者？其作用如何？
3. 跨国公司能否成为环境外交的积极参与者？

Topic 6 国家恐怖主义
1. 一国将恐怖主义作为对外政策工具的主要政治经济考量是什么？

环境外交(Enviromental diplomacy)

定义：以主权国家为主体，通过正式代表国家的机构和人员的官方行为，运用谈判、交涉等外交方式，处理和调整环境领域国际关系的一切活动。，其主要内容包括：寻求加强国际环境合作的方式；国际环境立法谈判；国际环境条约的履行；处理环境纠纷和冲突等。环境外交的另一层含义是，利用环境保护问题实现特定的政治目的或其他战略意图。


UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
( UNFCCC) （联合国气候变化框架公约）

Agreed to in 1992, which set out a framework for actions to control greenhouse gas emissions.

Entered into force in 1994, since then, six meetings of the conference of the Parties have taken place.

Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997, which commits industrialized countries to achieve targets for decreasing their emission of greenhouse gas

Kyoto Protocol will enter into force following ratifications by 55 countries to the FCCC, which account for at least 55% of total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990.

According to Kyoto Protocol, three mechanisms are established. They are: joint implementation
(JI); clean development mechanism (CDM); emission trading (ET).



Environmental Diplomacy of Multinational Corporations

1. corporations and the UN
Corporate interest in UN environmental activities has begun during the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio in 1992.
ICC (International Chamber of Commerce) and the WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development) are active in environmental issues, attend UN plenary sessions and ad hoc meetings. WBCSD has worked jointly with the World Bank, WTO, and several UN agencies.
Both ICC and WBCSD have observer status at the Conference of the Parties to the FCCC
2. Corporations and NGOS
There are extensive cooperation between business and NGOs, e.g: Shell’s cooperation with World Wide Fund for Nature; Johnson & Johnson’s support for the World Wide Fund for Nature in China on a comprehensive assessment of the trade in rhino and tiger parts, generating data to support the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.


NOKIA and Environment
(www.nokia.com/aboutnikia/environmental/)
Environmental considerations are integrated into every area of company life and at every phase of our products’ life cycle. We believe in eco-efficiency and sustainability—to respect nature and the needs of future generations.

Taking care of the environment is part of Nokia’s corporate culture. It means eliminating risks, also enables us to gain stakeholder acceptance as well as to achieve financial benefits and broader business opportunities.

Nokia has four environmental key programes
.Design for Environment
.Supplier Network Management
.Environmental Management Systems
.End-of-life Practices


来源：国际关系学院国政系

Mediation and the Art of Negotiation
作者：朱素梅 时间：2005年04月24日


Topic 9 Mediation and the Art of Negotiation


斡旋与调停
几个相关概念的区别
斡旋(good offices)
调解(conciliation)
调停(mediation)
仲裁(arbitration)

A third party acting as a ‘facilitator’ or providing ‘good offices’ has a more limited role than a mediator, usually involving no more than helping to bring the parties in conflict into direct negotiations. In short, its role is limited to the prenegotiation stage. Of course, it is quite common for a good offices mission to turn into mediation but the activities remain distinct. Unfortunately, this does not prevent many mediations from being described as missions of ‘good offices’. Mediation should also be distinguished from conciliation. This is an attempt to resolve a dispute by having it examined in depth by an independent commission of inquiry or ‘conciliation commission’. This then offers its recommendations for a settlement, which are non-binding. Arbitration is the same as conciliation except that the recommendation is binding. It is akin to but not the same as judicial settlement.

斡旋是指第三方国家、国际组织或个人劝使争端中的各方坐到或重新回到谈判桌边而本身并不介入谈判过程的一种行为。
调停是斡旋的进一步发展。调停者不仅传递信息，促成争端各方进行谈判，而且直接参加他们之间的谈判，提出合理建议，甚至还要保障最后达成的解决方案的遵守。

Definition of mediation
Oran Young: mediation is any action taken by an actor that is not a direct party to the crisis, that is designed to reduce or remove one or more of the problems of the bargaining relationship, and therefore to facilitate the termination of the crisis itself.

Jacob Bercovitch: mediation is a process of conflict management, related to but distinct from the parties\' own efforts, where the disputing parties or their representatives seek the assistance, or accept an offer of help, from an individual, group, state or organization to change, affect or influence their perceptions or behavior, without resorting to physical force or invoking the authority of the law.

G.R.Berridge: Mediation is the active search for a negotiated settlement to an international or intrastate conflict by an impartial third party.

Mediation is likely to be used when
1.a dispute is long, drawn out and complex
2.the parties\' own conflict management efforts have reached an impasse
3.neither party is prepared to countenance further costs or loss of life
4.both parties are prepared to co-operate to break their stalemate.




Disputing parties may want to initiate mediation in the hope that

1.this low-risk and flexible form of conflict management will actually help them understand their conflict, reduce some of its risks and get them closer toward settling it.

2.each party may embrace mediation in the expectation that the mediator might nudge or influence the other.

3.both parties may see mediation as a public expression of their commitment to genuine conflict management.

4.the parties may want an outsider to take much of the blame for failure.

Who are today’s mediators? What are their motives?

Track one (official)
The most important mediators are states, whether acting singly or collectively, or via the international organizations.
The major powers and middle powers: First, they seek the mediator’s mantle in order to defuse crises that threaten the global stability, including global economic stability, in which they have such an important stake. Secondly. The major powers generally think it prudent to mediate in conflicts if these occur within alliances or looser associations of states in which they play leading roles. The motive here is clearer: they are anxious to maintain solidarity. Thirdly, it is clear that the major powers also see mediation in general as a means of extending their networks of dependent clients. In other words, they see it not only as a means of preserving existing influence but also of projecting it into areas where previously it had not been great.
Small states: are interested in both the huge prestige that successful mediation can bring and the increased influence the mediation will produce as well.（The Algerian mediation of the Iranian Hostage Crisis）

Track two (unofficial)
Citizen diplomacy, (Hammer)
NGOs, Carter Center

Multiparty mediation


举例说明在国际关系中哪些国家或个人适于做调停人，其参与调停的原因



二、外交谈判
定义
外交谈判即有关主权国家就彼此之间存在争端的问题以及其他重要的国际事务进行协商和讨论，以求协调彼此的立场，达成某种妥协，最终以和平方式解决问题。

Negotiation is a technique of regulated argument which normally occurs between delegations of officials representing states, international organizations or other agencies. It takes place with a view to achieving one or other of the following objectives: identification of common interests and agreement on joint or parallel action in their pursuit; recognition of conflicting interests and agreement on compromise; or, some combination of both. Negotiation is the most important function of diplomacy.
(Berridge)


外交谈判的类型
Five categories of negotiation
(according to the purpose of the parties)
1.extension agreements (e.g. aviation landing rights, tariff agreements, renewal of a peacekeeping force mandate, renewal of leasing arrangements for an overseas military base.)

2.normalisation agreements (e.g. a peace treaty, re-establishment of diplomatic relations )


3.redistribution negotiation (e.g. territorial boundaries, voting powers in an international institution)

4.innovative agreement (e.g. Treaty of Rome, Sino-British agreement of 1984.)

5.negotiation for side-effects

外交谈判的程序与技巧
1．程序
three stages of negotiation
the pre-negotiation stage;
the formula stage;
the details stage;

the pre-negotiation stage:
1.agreeing the need to negotiate
2.agreeing the agenda
3.agreeing procedure (format; venue; level and composition of delegation; timing)
formula stage
(framework for agreement)
The chief characteristics of a good formula are: comprehensiveness,
balance, and flexibility.

the details stage
the details stage is the most difficult stage of all

外交谈判的技巧


外交谈判应遵循的主要原则
1． 实事求是的原则。
在外交谈判中，谈判各方要以客观事实为依据，坚持摆事实，讲道理，以理服人。
2． 平等互利的原则
外交谈判中的各方在政治上要平等，对大国、强国和小国、弱国坚持平等相待，要互相尊重国家主权；在经济上要互利互惠，以求共同发展。
3． 求同存异的原则
在外交谈判中，要坚持求大同，存小异的原则，寻找双方的共同利益。
4． 守信的原则
外交谈判必须讲信用，外交谈判是国家的行为，谈判代表的言行是代表国家在国际关系中承担权利和义务的活动。所以，在外交谈判中所说的话都要算数，对于达成的协议要言必信、行必果，一诺千金、恪守不渝。

来源：国际关系学院国政系

What is Public Diplomacy?
作者：朱素梅教授 时间：2005年04月24日


What is Public Diplomacy?
Definitions
Origins of the term
Public diplomacy and propaganda
Public and traditional diplomacy

What public diplomacy is and is not

\"PUBLIC DIPLOMACY refers to government-sponsored programs intended to inform or influence public opinion in other countries; its chief instruments are publications, motion pictures, cultural exchanges, radio and television.\" (U.S. Department of State, Dictionary of International Relations Terms, 1987, p. 85)

USIA which was in the business of public diplomacy for more than forty years, defined PUBLIC DIPLOMACY as follows:

Public diplomacy seeks to promote the national interest and the national security of the United States through understanding, informing, and influencing foreign publics and broadening dialogue between American citizens and institutions and their counterparts abroad.

Origins of the term Public Diplomacy
\"According to a Library of Congress study of U.S. international and
cultural programs and activities prepared for the Committee on Foreign
Relations of the U.S. Senate, the term `public diplomacy\' was first used
in 1965 by Dean Edmund Gullion of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy
at Tufts University. It was created with the establishment at Fletcher of
the Edward R. Murrow Center for Public Diplomacy.\"

The Murrow Center, in one of its earlier brochures, described public diplomacy as follows:
\"Public diplomacy . . . deals with the influence of public attitudes on the formation and execution of foreign policies. It encompasses dimensions of international relations beyond traditional diplomacy; the cultivation by governments of public opinion in other countries; the interaction of private groups and interests in one country with those of another; the reporting of foreign affairs and its impact on policy; communication between those whose job is communication, as between diplomats and foreign correspondents; and the processes of inter-cultural communications.

\"Central to public diplomacy is the transnational flow of information and
ideas.\"
[top]

Public diplomacy and propaganda
To this day views differ as to whether or not \"public diplomacy\" and
\"propaganda\" are similar.

Two examples:

In 1955, Oren Stephens, author of Facts to a Candid World: America\'s
Overseas Information Program, called such programs (now known as \"public
diplomacy\"), \"propaganda.\" He referred to the Declaration of
Independence as being \"first and foremost a propaganda tract.\"
In 1961, Wilson Dizard, in the first book to be written specifically
about USIA, which was then about eight years old, wrote: The United
States has been in the international propaganda business, off and on,
for a long time . . . propaganda played a crucial role in the war of
independence.\"
In the years following these earlier views, some U.S. Government officials
and others contended that U.S. public diplomacy programs are not
propaganda. Others still contend, however, that since propaganda can be
based on fact, public diplomacy can be equated with propaganda i.e. ideas,
information, or other material disseminated to win people over to a given
doctrine. If based on falsehoods and untruths, while still propaganda, it
is best described as \"disinformation.\"

USIA officials always contended that their programs dealt with the known
facts; to do otherwise would be counterproductive as their reliability
would be questioned.

Edward R. Murrow, in May 1963, as the Director of USIA at the time, in
testimony before a Congressional Committee, summed up this view best when
he said:

\"American traditions and the American ethic require us to be truthful, but
the most important reason is that truth is the best propaganda and lies
are the worst. To be persuasive we must be believable; to be believable we
must be credible; to be credible we must be truthful. It is as simple as
that.\"
[top]

Public diplomacy and traditional diplomacy
Public diplomacy differs from traditional diplomacy in that public diplomacy deals not only with governments but primarily with non-governmental individuals and organizations. Furthermore, public diplomacy activities often present many differing views as represented by private American individuals and organizations in addition to official U.S. Government views.
Traditional diplomacy actively engages one government with another government. In traditional diplomacy, U.S. Embassy officials represent the U.S. Government in a host country primarily by maintaining relations and conducting official USG business with the officials of the host government whereas public diplomacy primarily engages many diverse non-government elements of a society.

http://www.publicdiplomacy.org/1.htm
来源：国际关系学院国政系

经济外交
作者：朱素梅  时间：2005年04月24日


经济外交
经济外交有两种含义：其一是指主权国家通过外交手段促进对外贸易，增进国家的经济利益。其二是指利用经济手段达到某种政治和外交上的目的。
张学斌：经济外交是主权国家元首、政府首脑、政府有关部门的官员以及专门的外交机构，围绕国际经济问题开展的访问、谈判、签订条约、参加国际会议和国际经济组织等多边和双边活动。
美俄能源外交分析
美俄在能源合作中，既合作又斗争，各有自己的战略需求和战略运作谋略。
美俄近期达成有关铺设从秋明油田到摩尔曼斯克油管、开发巴伦支海底天然气、开发萨哈林气田等协议。美国资本已涉足秋明油田、西伯利亚油田等。
日本的经济外交（日本经济外交的发展历史及经验教训）
1、战后初的经济外交—重返国际社会。1957年，日本政府在其《外交蓝皮书》中首次提出“经济外交”的口号。力争获最惠国待遇。1955年加入关贸总协定。“赔偿外交”。
2、经济高速增长期。“民族主义的经
济外交”。
3、成为经济大国后的“经济摩擦外交”。
4、走向政治大国的经济外交。
日本的政府开发援助（ODA）
ODA是经济外交的载体。
1989年以来，日本的ODA金额持续居世界各援助国之首。
1991年，日本明确提出其ODA的目的和理念，即“为建立确保日本的全面安全之国际秩序。在这一总方针下又具体提出了”ODA四原则“，即：军事支出动向；核武器及生化武器状况；武器进出口动向；民主化状况。
日本的ODA分为三大类：无偿援助；日元贷款；技术合作。
经济外交的表现方式
1、经济合作
2、经济援助
3、经济制裁
4、第三世界的发展外交
5、国际协调与国际经济法
经济援助：美国和日本的经济援助
外交
经济制裁：
经济制裁有哪些形式？有效地实施经济制裁的前提条件是什么？
哪一类国家特别易受经济制裁的影响？试举例说明
案例分析：美缘何放宽对利比亚的经济制裁？
Economic Reward and Coercion
1.Tariffs
The tariff structure can be used effectively as a foreign policy inducement or punishment when a target country stands to gain or lose important markets for its products by its upward or downward manipulation..
preferential tariff treatment
most-favored-nation treatment
2.Quotas
3. Boycott
4.Embargo
5.Loans,Credits, and Currency Manipulations
6.Blacklists
7. Licensing
8. Freezing Assets
9. Granting or Suspending Aid, Including Military Sales or grants
10. Expropriation
11. Withholding Dues to an International Organization.
Economic coercion is most likely to be effective when the following conditions are met:
1.       The economic relationship between the coercer and the target is highly asymmetrical in terms of vulnerabilities.
2.       Alternative sources of supply or markets are readily available to the target.
3.       The target does not have the technology or resources to fashion substitutes for those items it can no longer import from the coercer.
4.       The costs of applying the sanctions to the coercer are significantly less than those suffered by the target.
5.       There is little international sympathy for the government of the target.
6.       The attempts at economic coercion are coupled with other techniques of statecraft.
7.       The economy of the target is already weak, characterized by high unemployment, low investment, severe inflation, and the like.
世界武器贸易
武器贸易增强了国家安全还是损害了国家安全？
来源：国际关系学院国政系