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2007年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
2006年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
2005年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
2004年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
2003年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
2002年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
说明：中国人民大学外国语学院“816英语语言学与英语教学”考试科目，在2008年以前名称并不统一。虽然考试科目名称有所改变，但考题风格、难度等没变。2008年之前年份语言学试题可以看作是“816英语语言学与英语教学”考试科目的前身。因此，历年考研真题依然具有很大的参考价值。
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2007年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
I.Fill in the blanks with the right linguistic concepts (10 points).
1.Human language isarbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsicconnection between a particular sound and the ______ it is associated with.
2. ______ s a typeof word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of asupposed affix of a longer form already present in the language. For example，the verb edit was formedfrom editor by dropping the supposed derivational suffix -or.
3.Some morphemeslike –ish,-ness，-ly，-dis，trans-.un- are never words by themselvesbut are always parts of words. These affixes are ______ morphemes.
4. ______ an bedefined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand,attempts to show the relationship between language and society.
5. One of theimportant distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is theFrench word for “language”, which is the abstract knowledge necessary forspeaking，listening，writing and reading. The lageris concerned about the actual use of language by people in speech or writing.Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.
6. H.P.Gricebelieves that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct ofconversation. This is what he calls the Cooperative Principle. According to themaximum of ______: Do not say what you believe to be false or for which youlack evidence. In other words，speak truthfully; do not lie.
7. ______ proposesthat every speaker knows a set of principals which apply to all languages andalso a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but onlywithin certain limits.
8. ______ refers tovarieties of a language used by individual speakers，with peculiarities ofpronunciation，grammarand vocabulary. In fact，no two speakers speak exactly the same dialect. Each speaker hascertain characteristic features of his own in his way of speaking.
9.According to ______period hypothesis，inchild development there is a period during which language can be acquired moreeasily than at any other time. The period lasts until puberty (around age 12 or13 years), and is due to biological development.
10. ______ refers toties and connections which exist within texts. They are also called formallinks between sentences and between clauses.
答案：
I. 1. meaning
2.Back-formation
3.bound
4.Pragmatics
5.langue
6.quality
7. GenerativeGrammar
8.Idiolect
9.Critical
10.Cohesion
II.Give short answer to the following questions (10 points)
I. Explain criterion-referenced andnorm-referenced language tests.
答案：Tests can be categorized into two major groups: norm-referenced testsand criterion-referenced tests. Thesetwo tests differ in their intended purposes, the way in which content isselected, and the scoring process which defines how the test results must beinterpreted.
A test thatmeasures student knowledge and understanding in relation to specific standardsor performance objectives is called criterion-referenced testing (CRT). Itmeasures students’ performance in relation to standards, not in relation toother students; all students may earn the highest grade if all meet theestablished performance criteria. CRTs report how wellstudents are doing relative to a pre-determined performance level on aspecified set of educational goals or outcomes included in the school,district, or state curriculum.
A test designed tomeasure and compare individual students’ performances or text results to thoseof an appropriate peer group (that is, norm group) at the classroom, local or,national level is called norm-referenced testing (NRT). Students with the bestperformance on a given assessment receive the highest grades. It is generallyused to help teachers selectstudents for different ability level reading or mathematics instructionalgroups.
2. Explain the seven types of meaningand use examples to illustrate your ideas.
答案：The seven types of meaning were first postulated by G. Leech. Theyare respectively illustrated as follows:
(1) Conceptualmeaning, which refers to logical, cognitive, or denotative content. This typeof meaning is “denotative” in that it is concerned with the relationshipbetween a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. It overlaps to a largeextent to the concept of reference, but Leech also uses the short form “sense”for the same indication. So Leech’s conceptual meaning contains two parts:sense and reference.
(2) Connotativemeaning, what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. It refersto some additional, especially emotive, meaning.
(3) Social meaning,referring to what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.
(4) Affectivemeaning, which refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of thespeaker/writer.
(5) Reflectedmeaning, which refers to what is communicated through association with another senseof the same expression.
(6) Collocativemeaning, what is communicated through association with words which tend tooccur in the environment of another word.
The five types ofmeanings from (2) to (6) are collectively known as Associative meaning in thesense that an elementary associationist theory of mental connections is enoughto explain their use.
(7) Thematic meaning,what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms oforder and emphasis. It is more peripheral since it is only determined by theorder of the words in a sentence and the different prominence they each receive.
III.Read the following passage carefully and then state your own position concerningthe use of knowing some linguistics. (10 points)
One famous scholarsays that language is an interesting subject to study on its own right, for thesimple reason that everybody uses it every day. It is unbelievable that we knowvery little about something we are so familiar with. Just a few questions willarouse our interest in language. Why should we call the thing we sit on chair?Can’t we call chair table and table chair? How is it thatchildren don’t seem to make a big effort in learning their first language whilewe adults have to work very hard to learn a second language? Why can we talkabout yesterday and last year while cats and dogs never seem to make noisesabout their past experience? Do you think we can think as clearly withoutlanguage as with language? Does language determine what we think or thoughtdetermines what we say? These questions make us curious about language andlinguistics can satisfy our curiosity. To seek the answer to any of thesequestions is a good reason for studying linguistics.
答案：Language is essential to human beings; it plays a central role inour lives as individual and social beings. We have to be fully aware of thenature and mechanism of our language, or we will be ignorant of whatconstitutes our essential humanity. Therefore, there is every necessity tostudy language. And Linguistics serves as a way for us to learn more aboutlanguage, and to explain some phenomena which we have taken granted for but whichin fact is quite interesting or puzzling. For example, with the help oflinguistics, people could explain why we call the thing we sit on a “chair” butnot a “cat” or “dog”, or why we can talk about yesterday and even tomorrowwhile animals can not. These two kinds of phenomena are all attributed to thedesign features of language which make it unique from and advantageous overanimal languages. The linguists have found that human language is arbitrarybecause there is no “natural” connection between a linguistic and its meaning.What’s more, human language has also the property of displacement which enablesthe language users to talk about things and events not present in the immediateenvironment.
Linguistics doesnot only try to explain the phenomena of language itself, but also try to studythe interrelation between it and other aspects of the whole human society. Thus,we have sociolinguistics, which studies the relation of language with society,and which tries to clear out the relationship of language to the society andculture; psycholinguistics, which aims to answer such questions as how thehuman mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mothertongue, how we memorize, and how we process the information we receive in the courseof communication; applied linguistics, which relates some findings inlinguistic studies to the solution of such practical problems as the recoveryof speech ability, foreign language teachings.
Of course, thepresent linguistic studies can not explain adequately all the phenomenaconcerned with language, for example, whether it is language determines cultureor that culture determines language. Even with the theories which seem to workwell on certain aspects of language we should not stay satisfied; for thetheory is now accepted as true only because it haven’t been proved wrong.
2006年中国人民大学816英语语言学与英语教学考研真题及详解
I.Fill in the blanks with the right linguistic concepts (22 points).
1. Saussuredistinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomenaor data of linguistics (utterances) as (1) and (2). The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of languageeither through speech or through writing.
2. (3)grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while (4) grammarstell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believethat whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.
3. (5)studies how the speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received,and (6) studies the rules governing the structure,distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
4. Words which havedifferent meanings but are written differently and sound alike are called (7).
5. One of theimportant distinctions in linguistics is (8) andperformance.
6. There are twofields of morphology: the study of (9) and thestudy of (10) .
7. “The world is like a stage” is an example of (11), and “All the world is a stage” is an example o
-f (12). They are often used in analyzing features of literary language.
8. (13)studies meaning in language, (14) sabout principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences, and (15)is concerned with the internal organization of words. They are allamong the main branches of linguistics.
9. (16)is the study of the language-processing mechanisms. It is concernedwith the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language; (17), on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship betweenlanguage and society. They both belong to branches of macrolinguistics.
10. The part oflinguistics that studies the language of literature is called (18). It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literarystyle.
11. Childrenfrequently say tooths and mouses, instead of teeth and mice.These are examples of (19) .
12. (20)is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word isformed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of anotherword.
For example, theEnglish word smog is made from (21) and (22).
答案：
(1)langue (2)parole (3)descriptive (4)prescriptive (5) phonetics
(6) phonology (7)homophones (8) competence (9)inflectional
(10)lexical/derivational (11) simile (12)metaphor (13)semantics (14) syntax
(15) morphology (16)psycholinguistics (17) sociolinguistics (18)stylistics
(19)overgeneralization (20)blending (21)smoke (22)fog
II.Give brief definitions of the following terms (18 points).
1.Phoneme2. CALL
3. ICanalysis4. Linguistic relativity
5. Silentperiod 6. Gradable antonym
答案：
1. Phoneme. Itrefers to the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in aparticular language. For example, in English, /p/ is described as a phoneme.
2. CALL. It is the abbreviation of computer-assisted language learning, whichrefers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second orforeign language. In this kind of CALL programs, the computer leads the studentthrough a learning task step-by-step, asking questions to check comprehension.Depending on the student’s response, the computer gives the student furtherpractice or progresses to new material.
3. IC analysis. IC analysis (immediate constituent analysis) refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in turn analyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimateconstituents are reached. In practice, for the sake of convenience,we usually stop at the level of word.
4. Linguisticrelativity. This is one of two points in Sapir-Whorfhypothesis. It states that similarity between languages is relative, the greatertheir structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualizationof the world is. For example, not every language has the same set of words forthe colors; in Spanish there is no word that corresponds to the English meaningof “blue”.
5. Silent period. It refers to a period in the initial phase of the languageacquisition process, during which children acquiring a new language in naturalsettings are silent and concentrate on comprehension. And they may respond, if necessary, only in a non-verbal way or bymaking use of a set of memorized phrases. This phenomenon is also observed whenwe see how children acquire their mother tongue.
6. Gradableantonym. Gradable antonyms are antonyms that are gradable because there areoften intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. For example, coldand warm constitute a pair of gradable antonyms.
III.Give Short answers to the following questions(40 points):
1. In what ways do people cooperate intheir conversations?
答案：In daily conversations people do not usually say things directly buttend to imply them, and according to Grice, they seem to observe willingly or unwillinglycertain principle, which is called “cooperative principle”: “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs，by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in whichyou are engaged”. Under this principle, there are fourmaxims, namely, Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner.
2. How is the illocutionary actdifferent from the perlocutionary act?
答案：An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’sintention; it is the act performed in saying something. Thus, if someone says “Morning”,we can ask questions like “What did he mean?” and the answer could be “Heoffered a greeting.”
A perlocutionary act,however, is the effect of the utterance. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer onsomething, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, andso on. Therefore, the perlocutionary act of the saying “Morning” could be tokeep friendly relations with the hearer.
3. Why did Chomsky make the distinctionbetween deep and Surface structures?
答案：In generative grammar, deep structure is theabstract syntactic representation of a sentence, the underlying level of structural organization whichspecifies all the factorsgoverning the way the sentence should be interpreted. On the other hand, surfacestructure is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to thephonological component of thegrammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.
According toChomsky, it is necessary to make the distinction, since it is helpful todifferentiate and analyze syntactic structures such as “John is easy to please”and “John is eager to please”, and also to disambiguate structures like “theshooting of the hunters”. More importantly, it reflects two of the stages ofhow the language is processed through the generative grammar: the deepstructure, which an underlying structure, has to be transformed to the surfacestructure via a set of transformational rules.
4.What are the major concerns of pragmatics?
答案：Pragmatics is the study of the language in use. It is mainly abouthow speakers use language appropriately and effectively in accordance with agiven context. It is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by aspeaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). It has more todo with participants of communication and context in which communication takesplace. Hence the study of speaker meaning, that of contextual meaning, of whatis unsaid but communicated.
5. For the system of transitivity,Halliday identified six kinds of process, each with different types ofparticipants. List four of the processes and comment on the effectiveness ofsuch classification.
答案：For the system of transitivity, Halliday has identified six kinds ofprocess, and four of them are material process, relational process, behavioralprocess, and mental process.
Such aclassification has a lot to do with the systemic-functional approach of grammarinterpretation. The classification of the system of transitivity helps revealthe functions of the components in relation to the whole clause; it is an interpretationof grammar in terms of ideational function. These six types of process have dividedup the semantic system of ideational function, by showing the various ways oflanguage to react on the material world around us, and make sense of theirexperience of what goes on around them and inside them, or in other words, toperform the ideational function.
IV.Answer the following questions, citing examples to support your ideas (40points).
1. What are the seven functions ofhuman language?
答案：According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions,and they are illustrated as follows:
1) Informativefunction. It means that language is the instrument of thought and languageserves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also calledideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarativesentences such as “This is a book.” are the typical illustration of thisfunction.
2) Interpersonalfunction. The interpersonal function means people can use language to establishand maintain their status in a society. It is the most important sociologicaluse of language. In the framework of functional grammar, this function isconcerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discoursesituation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves(such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant)indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.
3) Performativefunction. The performative function of language is primarily to change thesocial status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing ofcriminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launchingceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed inperformative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. Theperformative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magicalor religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or aplate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (everyyear be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which thebelievers feel might affect their lives.
4) Emotivefunction. The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of languagebecause it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for oragainst someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervousenergy when people are under stress, for example, swear words, obscenities,involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventionalwords/phrases, for example. God, My, Damn it, Wow, Ugh, Ow, etc.
5) Phaticcommunion. The phatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.People always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Goodmorning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationshipbetween people without any factual content.
6) Recreationalfunction. The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joyof using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
7) Metalingualfunction. The metalingual function refers to the fact that people can uselanguage to talk about itself. For example, I can use the word “book” to talkabout a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk aboutthe sign “b-o-o-k” itself.
2. What are the major types of semanticChanges?
答案：There are mainly threekinds of semantic changes, namely, broadening, narrowing, and meaning shift. Class shift and folketymology also contribute to change in meaning
(1) Broadening
Broadening is aprocess to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense toa relatively general one．For instance，the word holiday used to mean“holy day”in religious English. Today it means“a day for rest”regardless of its religious nature.
(2) Narrowing
Contrary tobroadening，theoriginal meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specificsense．A typicalexample is the word meat which originally meant "food". In thecourse of time, the range of meaning was narrowed to mean specifically"the flesh of animals used as food".
(3) Meaning shift
All semantic changesinvolve meaning shift．Yet, in its narrow sense, meaning shift refers to the change of meaning,which has nothing to do with generalization or restriction. What makes themeaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as aresult of its metaphorical usage. For instance，the word bead originally means “prayer”, but laterit refers to “the prayer bead”, the visible manifestation of a prayer, finally “small,ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood”.
(4) Class shift
By shifting theword class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity ornotion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is alsoknown as zero-derivation, or conversion. The word engineer as a nounmeans “a person trained in a branch of engineering”, but it means “to act as anengineer” or “to plan, to maneuver” when used as a verb.
(5) Folk etymology
It refers toa change in form of a word or phrase resulting from an incorrect popular notionof the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiarterms mistakenly taken to be analogous. As a result of this modification，the word sparrowgrass inEnglish derived from asparagus; the Spanish cucaracha changedinto English cockroach．
V.Translate the following into Chinese (30 points).
Suppose that JohnSmith, happily married to Mary Smith, addresses his wife as “Mary, Smith, howmany times have I asked you not to flip through the TV channels?” There wouldbe reason to took beyond the words for the “meaning” of this unusual form ofaddress. Mr. Smith may address his wife as “Mary Smith” to show hisexasperation, as in this example. By addressing her as “Mary Smith” instead ofthe usual “Mary”, he conveys frustration and annoyance. His choice of name thus“means” that he is exasperated. Contrast the tone of that Sentence With asimilar one in which John Smith addressed Mary Smith as “dear”.
The level of meaningthat conveys the language user’s feelings, including his attitude or evaluationin shaping his use of language is Called affective meaning or emotivemeaning. It is largely a parasitic category in the sense that to express ouremotions we depend on the mediation of other categories of meaning asconceptual, connotative or social. For example, nigger, originally aword denoting a certain race, has virtually become a term of abuse or contempt;and a similar development has occurred with part of the political vocabulary, suchas fascist.
【参考译文】
假设约翰·史密斯开心地娶了玛丽小姐后却这样称呼他的妻子：“玛丽·史密斯，我告诉过你多少次了，换台时不要老那么快！”撇开字面意思，这不寻常的称呼的出现是有理由的。在这个例子中，史密斯先生称呼他妻子为“玛丽·史密斯”用以表达他的愤怒。用这样的称呼而非“玛丽”，正传达了史密斯先生的不满和恼怒。因此可以说这样用词的“隐含意义”是：他被激怒了。假设有另外一个类似的句子，其中约翰·史密斯称呼妻子为“亲爱的”，我们就可以进行比较并发现两个句子语气的不同。
用以表达语言使用者的情感，包括调整其在语言使用过程中的态度及评价的这层意义就叫感情意义。这类意义实际上是依附于其它意义之上的。要表达情绪，总是要依靠其它类别的意义——概念意义，内涵意义，又或者社会意义——来调节。例如，“黑鬼”一词最初是某个特定种族的名字，而现在已变成用来辱骂他人或者是表达对他人的蔑视。同样，某些政治词语也经历了相似的发展，比如“法西斯”。
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