I. The definition of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.
II. The design features of language
【考点：名词解释&填空】
Design features refer to the defining properties of human languages that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
1.Arbitrariness
It is the core feature of language, which refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. it is not entirely arbitrary at all levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.
2.Duality
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements (e.g. sounds, letters) and units (e.g. words).
3.Creativity
Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.
4.Displacement
Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.
5.Cultural Transmission
Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.
6.Interchangeability
Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
III. Origin of language
1. The Biblical account
Language was God’s gift to human beings.
2.The bow-wow theory
Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.
3. The pooh-pooh theory
Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expression of pain or joy.
4.The yo-he-ho theory
Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.
5. The evolution theory
Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.
IV. Functions of language
【考点：判断所描述的是语言的何种功能&名词解释】
1. Informative function
Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the most important function. Declarative sentences serve this function.
2.Interpersonal function
The interpersonal function is considered as the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.
3.Performative function
The performative function of language is primarily used to change the social status of persons, such as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.
4.Emotive function
The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.
5.Phatic function
This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.
6.Recreational function
The recreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
7.Metalingual function
The metalingual function refers to the fact that our language can be used to talk about itself.
V. Definition of linguistics
Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, the scientific study of language. It not only focus on a particular language, but is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The four principles which make linguistic a science are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.
VI. Branches of linguistics
1.Microlinguistics—Intra-disciplinary divisions
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
2.Macrolinguistics—Interdisciplinary divisions
Psycholinguistics
Sociolinguistics
Applied linguistics
Computational linguistics
Neurolinguistics
VII. Important concepts and their distinctions
1.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
To say that linguistics is a descriptive science means that linguists tried to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness. Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. The distinction lies in describing how things are and prescribing how things ought to be.
2.Synchronic vs. Diachronic
Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time. When we study language at a particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any points in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.
3.Langue vs. Parole
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.
4.Competence vs. Performance
【考点：解释Saussure和Chomsky的两对概念的异同】
(1)Chomsky made the fundamental difference between competence and performance.
(2)A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.
(3) Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
5.Etic vs. Emic
(1)Etic refers to the linguistic units containing “-etic”, for example, phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, and are first used to describe sounds.
(2)Emic refers to the linguistic units containing “-emic”, for instance, phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe abstract linguistic rules with distinctive features and are first used to describe phonemes.
6.Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Grammar
Traditional grammar can be considered as prescriptive; it is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.
7.Linguistic Potential vs. Actual Linguistic Behavior
Halliday thinks that with language, there is a wide range of things that a speaker can do in the culture he is in. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed linguistic potential from a functional language’s view. What a speaker actually says on a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have is termed actual linguistic behavior.
| I. 语言的定义
语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
II. 语言的定义特征
语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性
任意性是语言的核心特征，是指符号的形式或者声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。 虽然语言从本质上讲是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。一些词语，例如一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。
2．二重性
二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性
创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性
移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性
语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性
互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
III. 语言的起源
1．圣经的记载
语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论
语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如（鸭子）的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论
语言来源于人本能的情感声音，表达疼痛或喜悦。
4．“哟-嘿-吼”理论
语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论
语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
IV. 语言的功能
1．信息功能
语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能
人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3．施为功能
语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
4．感情功能
语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。
5．寒暄功能
寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。
6．娱乐功能
语言的娱乐功能是指纯粹为了娱乐而使用语言，例如婴儿的呀呀学语，歌者的吟唱。
7．元语言功能
语言的元语言功能是指语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
V. 语言学的定义
语言学通常被定义为研究科学的语言，或对语言的科学研究。它不仅仅关注某种特定的语言，而是基于一些语言结构的综合理论，对语料进行的系统研究。语言学研究的科学性可以归纳为：穷尽性、一致性、简洁性以及客观性。
VI. 语言学的分支
1． 微观语言学
语音学
音系学
形态学
句法学
语义学
语用学
2．宏观语言学
心理语言学
社会语言学
应用语言学
计算语言学
神经语言学
VII. 重要概念及其区分
1．描写式与规定式
把语言说成描述性的科学是说语言学家试图发现和记录同一语言共同体的成员所遵循的规则，并不是强加给它们其他规则或正确的标准。规定式的语言学目的在于为正确使用语言定下各种规则，一劳永逸地解决用法上的争议。它们最主要的区别就在于前者描述事情怎样而后者规定事情应该如何。
2．共时与历时
语言研究可以是在一个给定的时间也可以是一段时间。当我们集中在某一点时间来研究语言时就叫做共时语言学。当我们研究随着时间发展的语言时就叫做历时语言学。共时语言学集中研究历史任何时期点的语言现状，而历时语言学集中研究几十年或几百年的时期内两个或比两个更多的语言状况的差异。
3．语言与言语
索绪尔用语言和言语来区分说话者的语言能力和言语上(表达的)的实际表现或语料。语言是指一个语言群体的所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统。言语是指语言的具体实现和运用。
4．语言能力和语言应用
(1)乔姆斯基提出了语言能力和语言应用的根本区别。
(2)一名语言使用者对于语言规则系统的潜在认识称为他的语言能力，
(3)语言运用指在具体场景中语言的实际运用。
5．唯素的与唯位的
(1)唯素的是指具有“素”的语言单位，如音素、词素，是对语言事实的细节描写，不具有区别性特征，最早用于音素描写。
(2)唯位是指具有“位”的抽象语言单位，如音位、词位，用来描述抽象的语言规则，具有区别性特征，最早用于音位描写。
6．传统语法与现代语法
传统语法是规定式的，是基于“高度的”书面语。它为语言使用者提供可供遵循的模式。但是现代语法是描写式的，对法的研究是基于真实的并且主要是口语化的语言数据。它应该是比较科学和客观的，而语言学家的任务也应该是描述人们如何在实际中使用语言，无论其是否“正确”。
7．语言潜势与实际语言行为
韩礼德认为，通过语言说话者可以在其生活的文化环境里做一系列广泛的事情。从语言功能的角度来看，“做”的可能性就被定义为语言潜势。说话者在某一特定的场所对某个特定的个体来说，是从其所能说得多种可能的内容中挑选而来的。这种说话者从言语中所做的实际选择就叫做实际言语行为。
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