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第七章
chapter 7 language, culture, and socitey语言，文化和社会
- 7.1 Language and culture语言和文化
- 7.1.1 How does language relate to culture?语言如何与文化相联系？
- 1. It has become axiomatic to state there exists a close relationship between language and culture.语言和文化之间有密切的联系。
- 2. Some change was developed at the start of the 20th century: an anthropological orientation in the study of language was developed both in England and in North American. What characterized this new tradition was its study of language a sociocultural context.一些变化在20世纪的时候出现了，无论是在英国还是在北美，语言研究都开始了人类学转向，这种新传统的特征就是将语言研究置于社会文化的语境之中。
- 3. Bronislaw Malinowski and Jonh P. Firth can be regarded as the pioneers of this movement in England.
- 马林诺夫斯基和弗斯是这一运动的先驱。
- Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, and Benjamin Lee Whorf are naturally seen as the representatives of a parallel but independent tradition from North America. 鲍阿斯，萨丕尔和沃尔夫是北美代表。
- 4. Firth developend his own theory of context of situation, which can be summarised as follows: 弗斯提出了自己的情景语境理论，总结如下：
- A. The relevant features of the participants: person, personalities; 参与者的相关特征：人物，人品
- (i) The verbal action of the participants 参与者的言语行为
- (ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.参与者的非言语行为；
- B. The relevant objects 有关事物
- C. The effects of the verbal action.言语活动的影响
- Firth here seemed to suggest the creativity and diversity of linguistic idiosyncrasy in language use. 弗斯在这里指出了语言使用中语言的创造性和多样性。
- On the other hand, what Firth emphasized in this theory is quite similar to a more updating sociological axiom in language use, namely, “who speaks or writes what language or what laguage variety to whom and when and to what end.另一方面，弗斯在该理论中所强调的内容十分接近一个更新的关于语言使用的社会学公理，即“谁在什么时候对谁说了或写了什么语言或使用了什么语言变体，得到了什么结果。””
- 5. M.A.K.Halliday, whose contributions to sociolinguistics could be better seen from his understanding of language from a socially semiotic or interactional perspective, his functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential, and his linguistic model in the study of literature.韩礼德对社会语言学的贡献可以从下列方面更清楚地看出来：他从社会符号或者交互功能方面来解释语言，他将语法解释为具有意义潜势的功能观，以及他在文学研究中建立的语言模型。
- 6. ethnography of communication 交际民族学
- Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学
- Sapir-Whorf hypotheses 萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说
- 7．linguistic relativity语言相对性----: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.
- .linguistic determinism语言决定论:---- one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,i.e.language determines thought.
- On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as languistic determinism and linguistic relativity-----a view which “was first expounded by the German ethnologist, Wilhelm von Humboldt”. 一方面语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构差异越大，所反映的对世界的认识越不同。因此这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。实际上，这种看法“最早由德国民族学家洪堡特详加阐释”
- 8. if we want to do a good job in Crosscultural communication, there are five types of sub-culture we shoud be fully aware of :如果想出色地完成跨文化交际工作，需要充分认识五种次文化形式：
- Ecological culture 生态文化
- Linguistic culture 语言文化
- Religious culture宗教文化
- Material culture 物质文化
- Social culture 社会文化
- 7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说
- 1. The stong version of the theory强式说 -----refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasiziing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.指的是这一理论的初始假说，即强调语言在塑造我们的思维方式过程中起到了决定性的作用。
- 2. The weak version of the theory弱式说-----is modified type of its original theory , suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-culture differences thus produced in our way of thinking are relatives, rather than categorical.是初始假说的修正形式，即认为语言、文化和思维之间有相关性，但是产生不同思维方式的跨文化差异只是相对的，而不是绝对的。
- 7.1.3 Case studies 个案研究
- 1. get your hands dirty means:
- You are practicing something 你在做什么事情
- You are engaged in doing sth你在从事什么事情
- 2. have enough dumbbells 愚蠢的家伙
- 7.1.4 To which extent do we need culture in our linguistic study?文化在语言研究中占什么地位？
- Motivation 动因 directionality 方向性
- 7.1.5 Culture in language teaching classroom语言教学中的文化
- 7.2 Language and society 语言和社会
- 7.2.1 How does language relate to society?语言如何和社会联系？
- Monistic 一元性 Dualistic view 二元观 autonomous pursuit 自治性
- 7.2.2 A situalionally and socially variationist perspective 情景和社会变异视角
- 1. We may expand the scope of our observation by introducing some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include : class; gender; age; ethnic identity; education background; occupation and religious belief.我们可以通过引进一些社会因素来扩展我们的详细观察视野。这些因素被认为会在一定的社会背景中影响我们的言语行为，主要包括：阶级；性别；年龄；种族；教育背景；职业；和宗教信仰。
- 2. phonological variations 语音变体
- 3. gender difference性别差异:---- a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”
- 4. linguistic sexism语言性别歧视------:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.
- 5. variationist linguistics变异语言学:----- a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.
- 7.2.3 What shoud we know more about sociolinguistics?对于社会语言学我们海应该知道些什么？
- 1. sociolinguistics of society社会语言学;-----one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.
- 2. sociolinguistics of language语言学社会学:----- one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.
- 7.2.4 What implication can we get from sociolinguistics?从社会语言学中可以得到什么启示？
- 1. communicative competence交际能力:---- a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,etc.governing the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.
- 2. grmmarians 语法学家 active language users 能动的语言使用者
- Chapter 10 Language and Computer语言和计算机
- 1．Computer system计算机系统------The machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc. is known as a computer system.计算机本身是有键盘、打印机、屏幕、磁盘驱动器和程序等组成，我们称之为计算机系统。
- 2．Computer literacy计算机操作能力-----it refers to those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and compute software. 计算机操作能力，特指那些能使用计算机并具有大量计算机软件知识和技巧的人。
- 3．Computational linguistics计算机语言学-----it can be seen as a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.看作是应用语言学的分支，即通过计算机处理人类语言。
- 4．Computational linguistics includes:计算机语言学包括
- A the analysis of language data 对语言数据的分析
- B . electronic production of artificial speech (speech synthesis) and the automatic recognition of human speech 人类语言的电子生成（言语合成）和人类语言的自动识别
- C . research on automatic translation between natural languages在自然语言之间的自动翻译
- D . text processing and communication between people and computers.语篇处理和人与计算机的交流
- 10.1 Computer-assisted language learing (CALL)计算机辅助语言学习
- 10.1.1 CAL / CAI vs CALL
- 1. CAL:computer-assisted learning 计算机辅助学习emphasizes the use of a computer in both teaching and learning in order to help the learner achieve educational objectives.强调在教和学两方面使用计算机，帮助学习者达到学习目标。
- 2. CAI: computer-assisted instruction 计算机辅助教学，aims ate seeing educational problems on the part of the teacher.注重于教师教的问题
- 3. CALL:computer-assisted language learning, refers to the use of computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. 计算机辅助语言学习，指的是将计算机运用到第二语言或外语的教学中去。
- 4. CAI or CAL deals with teaching and learning in general, CALL deals with language teaching and learning in particular.CAI或CAL是处理一般的教与学，CALL则是用来处理语言教学的。
- 10.1.2 Phases of CALL development CALL的发展阶段
- 10.1.3 Technology技术
- (1). Customizing, template, and authoring program.定制、模块和编程
- (2). Computer networks 计算机网络
- Local area networks局域网 : short for LAN, which are computers together by cables in a classroom, lab, or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with the target language.指在教室、实验室或其他建筑里，计算机通过光缆连接在一起。他们教师们提供了一种新颖的方式，来创造新的活动，对学生而言就是对目标语言提供更多的时间和经验。
- (3). Compact disk technology. 激光盘技术
- Compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM)激光可视盘-------allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quick access to the infromation. Students and teachers can access informatin quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.激光可视盘使得大量信息储存在一张磁盘上，以便快速获取信息。学生和教师能够快速有效地在课内或课后使用信息。
- (4). Digitized sound. 数字化语言。
- CD-I : compact disk-interactive 交互式激光盘
- 10.2 Machine translation 机器翻译-----short for MT, it refers to the use of machine (usually computers) to translate texts from one language to another.指利用机器（通常是计算机）把文本从一种语言翻译到另一种语言。
- 10.2.1 History of development 发展历史
- (1). The independent work by MT researchers MT研究者的独立工作
- (2). Towards good quality output 瞄准高质量的输出
- FAHQT： Fully automatic quality translation 全自动高质量翻译
- (3). The development of translation tools. 翻译工具的发展
- 10.2.2 Research methods 研究方法
- MT research methods can be represented from two perspective, one is from the application of linguistic theories, another from what has been actually practiced by MT researchers. MT研究方法可以从两个方面来叙述，一方面是语言学理论的运用，一方面是MT研究者们实际所从事的内容。
- (1).Linguistic approach语言学的方法
- MT research has been regarded as a field in which new linguistic formalisms or new computational techniques can be tried out . In other words, MT has been seen as a test-bed for linguistic theories, because the quality of MT and translation can be judged by non-experts.
- MT研究已经被看做一个试验新的语言形式或新的计算技术的领域。换言之，MT已经被视为语言理论的实验床，因为MT和翻译的质量能由非专家来判断。
- The relevant theories were information theory, categorical grammar, transformational-generative grammar, dependency grammar, and stratificational grammar in the 1950s and 1960s; artificial intelligence, non-linguistic knowledge bases, formalisms such as lexical-functional grammar, generalized phrase structure grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, definite clause grammar, priciples and parameters, Montague semantics in the 1970s and 1980s, neural networks, connectionism, parallel processing , and statistical methods and others in the 1990s.与之相关的理论有：20世纪50年代和60年代的信息理论，范畴语法，转换生成语法，从属语法，和层次语法；70年代和80年代的人工智能，非语言知识基础，诸如词汇功能语法，广义短语结构语法，中心词驱动短语结构语法，有定从句语法，原则和参数，70年代和80年代的蒙太古语法等这些形式主义；90年代的神经系统网络，连接注意，平行处理，和统计学方法以及其他理论。
- (2). The practical approaches实践的方法
- this can be further divided into 3 strands 实践的方法可进一步分为3条线索
- a. The transfer approach转移法
- b. The interlingual approach 语际法
- c. Knowledge-based approach 基于知识的方法
- 10.2.3 MT quality MT的质量
- 10.2.4 MT and the Internet MT和互联网
- 10.2.5 Spoken langauge translation 口语翻译
- 10.2.6 MT and human translation MT和人工翻译
- 10.3 Corpus linguistics 语料库语言学
- Computer corpora 计算机语料库
- 10.3.1
- Corpus, plrual coruora A collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a trancription of recorded speech. The main purposes of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language-----for example, to determine the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.语料，复数形式corpora： 一个语言数据的存储，可是是被编辑为书面文本，也可以是被作为录音言语的译本。语料的主要目的是鉴定一个语言的假说------例如，确定一个特定的语音，单词，或句法结构的使用如何变化。
- Corpus Linguistics deals with the priciples and practice of using corpora in language study. A computer corpus is a large body of machine-readab;e texts.语料库语言学：论述语言研究中使用语料的原理和实践。一个计算机语料库是机器可读文本的重要躯干。
- 10.3.2 Criticisms and the revival of corpus linguistcis语料库语言学受到的批判及其复兴
- 10.3.3 Concordance 共现关系------the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also retrieve all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered。We may then be interested in sorting in some way-----for example, alphabetically on words occruing in the immediate context of the word. This is usually referred to as a concordance.计算机有能力搜索一个特定的词，词汇的顺序，甚至一个文本里的某一个词类。计算机也能检索一个词所有的实例，通常是在上下文里，这对语言学家是更有力的帮助。它还能计算机一个词出现的次数，从而收集到有关这个词的频率的信息。然后，我们可以饶有兴趣地以某种方式对数据进行分类---例如，按字母顺序将出现在紧接着某个词的上下文里的词进行分类。这通常被称为共现关系。
- 10.3.4 Text encoding and annotation 文本编辑和注解
- Annotation注解-----if corpora is said to be unannotated------it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.如果语料被说成是无注解的，这指它以其存在的自然状态出现在简单的文本里，而有注解的语料通过各种各样类型的语言信息得到增强。
- 10.3.5 The roles of corpus data 语料库数据的作用
- a. Speech research 言语研究
- b. Lexical studies 词汇研究
- c. Senmantics 语义学
- d. Sociolinguistics 社会语言学
- e. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学
- 10.4 Infromation retrieval 信息检索------ the term conventionally, though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of activity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not inform (i.e.change the knowledge of) the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence (or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.信息检索习惯上是指本书所探讨的那类活动的术语，虽然不十分精确。信息检索系统不会通知用户查询的内容，它仅仅告诉用于是否存在在和哪里存在与它查询有关的信息。
- 10.4.1 Scope defined 范围
- Automatic information retrieval system, automatic as opposed to manual and information as opposed to data or fact. 自动信息检索系统，自动是相对于人工而言，信息是相对于数据和事实而言。
- DR: data retrieval 数据检索
- IR: infromation retrieval 信息检索
- 10.4.2 An infromation retrieval system 信息检索系统
- A typical IR can be illustrated by the following diagram, which shows three components : input, processor and output.一个典型的信息检索系统由三部分组成：输入，处理 和输出。
- 10.4.3 Three main areas of research 三个主要的研究领域
- (1). Content analysis Content analysis is concerned with describing the contents of documents in a form suitable for computer processing. 内容分析，是描述文档内容，便于计算机处理。
- (2). Infromation structure-------Infromation structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval. 信息结构 信息结构指文档之间的关系，用来提高检索策略的有效性。它包含信息的逻辑组织，如为了信息检索需要的文档关键词。
- (3). Evaluation ------Evaluation is concerned with the measurement of the effectiveness of retrieval.评估 评估是关于检索有效性的检测。
- Precision精确度------the propotion of retrieval documents which are relevant.检索出相关文档的比例。
- Recall记忆-------the propotion of relevant documents retrieved.有关文档被检索出的比例
10.5 Mail and news 邮件和新闻
[ 本帖最后由 yl120872063b 于 2010-1-22 16:30 编辑 ] |
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